CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

IRRIGATION is the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth. 4. To soften tillage pans & clods.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth. 4. To soften tillage pans & clods. 5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth. 4. To soften tillage pans & clods. 5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil. 6. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth. 4. To soften tillage pans & clods. 5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil. 6. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling. 7. To reduce the hazard of frost.

PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION: 1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts. 3. To cool the soil & atmosphere thereby making it more favorable environment for plant growth. 4. To soften tillage pans & clods. 5. To wash out or dilute salts in the soil. 6. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling. 7. To reduce the hazard of frost. 8. To reduce the hazard of soil piping.

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES Potential Service Area = 3.16 M hectares Year 1922-1930 1946 1950-1953 1957 1964 1972 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 2000 1.437 M 1.458 M 1.487 M 1.515 M 1,538 M 2.300 M Irrigated Area (has.) 80,130 201,481 266,000 400,000 541,000 23.75 45.96 46.06 47.07 48.00 49.00 12.80 6.44 Percentage

THE PANTABANGAN DAM Cost: P242 M Inauguration Date: September 7, 1974 Height: Length: Base Width at Max. Section: Crest Width: Storage Capacity: Type: Irrigable Area: 107 m 1,615 m 480 m 12 m 3 billion cu. m. Zoned-earthfill 83,700 has. (wet season) 78,700 has. (dry season)

THE MAGAT DAM Inauguration Date: October 27, 1982 Storage Capacity: Length: Height: Base: Crest: Irrigable Area: Type: Cost: 1.25 billion cu. m. 4,160 m 114 m 102 m 12 m 102,000 has. Earth-rockfill P3.3 billion

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS USE 1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet)

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS USE 1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet) 2. Surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas)

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS USE 1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet) 2. Surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas) 3. Groundwater

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS USE 1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet) 2. Surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas) 3. Groundwater 4. Irrigation water

SOURCES OF WATER FOR PLANTS USE 1. Precipitation (rainfall, snow, hail, sleet) 2. Surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, low lying areas) 3. Groundwater 4. Irrigation water 5. Atmospheric water other than precipitation

DAM TYPES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION 1. Diversion Dam also called run-of-the-river type of dam 2. Reservoir Dam also called storage type of dam A diversion dam is used to control the flow of water from its source, like rivers or any stream channels, by raising the head of water up to a certain height and then diverting it to a diversion or main canal that is constructed immediately at the upstream portion of the dam. It is effective during the periods of high stream flows which normally occurs during the rainy or wet season. Thus, water flow from the diversion dam is almost continuous, especially during the rainy season. It could not store the excess amount of water flow for future use. Water level Upstream Downstream Dam

DAM TYPES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION 1. Diversion Dam also called run-of-the-river type of dam 2. Reservoir Dam also called storage type of dam A diversion dam is used to control the flow of water from its source, like rivers or any stream channels, by raising the head of water up to a certain height and then diverting it to a diversion or main canal that is constructed immediately at the upstream portion of the dam. It is effective during the periods of high stream flows which normally occurs during the rainy or wet season. Thus, water flow from the diversion dam is almost continuous, especially during the rainy season. It could not store the excess amount of water flow for future use. A reservoir type of dam stores water during the rainy periods so that it can be used during the dry periods of the year. Two rice cropping seasons may be done in a year if there is a reservoir dam, like the Pantabangan and the Magat dams. It is most likely not possible to have 2 rice cropping seasons if there is only a diversion dam due to lack of water during the dry months of the year.

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater)

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater) 2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main canal, lateral canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches)

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater) 2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main canal, lateral canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches) 3. Control Structures (Dam, check, gates, turnout)

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater) 2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main canal, lateral canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches) 3. Control Structures (Dam, culvert, check, gates, turnout) 4. Protective Structures (drop, chute, baffles, rip-rap, etc.)

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. Water source (river, lakes, ponds, reservoir, groundwater) 2. Conveyance Structures (Canal Network which consists of diversion or main canal, lateral canals, main farm ditches, supplementary farm ditches) 3. Control Structures (Dam, culvert, check, gates, turnout) 4. Protective Structures (drop, chute, baffles, rip-rap, etc.) Diversion or main canal is the biggest sized canal. It is connected to the upstream portion of a diversion dam, or to the main outlet of a reservoir dam. It supplies water to the lateral canals.

River Lateral canal

Main (or Diversion) Canal

Main Farm Ditch Dam

TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM

COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM Diversion or main canal is the biggest sized canal. It is connected to the upstream portion of a diversion dam, or to the main outlet of a reservoir dam. It supplies water to the lateral canals. Lateral canals are connected to the diversion or main canal and supplies water to the main farm ditches. Main farm ditches are connected to the lateral canals and supplies water to the supplementary farm ditches. Supplementary farm ditches are the smallest sized canals found inside a farmers field. They are normally temporary in nature and are constructed every now and then by the farmers themselves.

QUESTIONS 1. Define irrigation. 2. List six purposes for applying irrigation water to the soil. 3. What are the four major sources of irrigation water? 4. Is all of the precipitation that falls on cropland available to the crops? Explain. 5. Does groundwater contribute directly to the water needs of plants? When? When is it harmful? 6. How does the need for irrigation in humid areas differ from that in arid regions? 7. What are the advantages of small ponds and reservoirs for irrigation?

QUIZ A. Define: 1. Irrigation 3. Soil Texture 5. Soil Structure 2. Bulk Density 4. Apparent Specific Gravity

B. List five (5) sources of water for plants use C. Give five (5) purposes of irrigation D. What are the two (2) types of dam? E. Give two (2) components of an irrigation system. F. What is the most important part of an irrigation system?

CHAPTER 2 BASIC SOIL-PLANT-WATER RELATIONS

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 1. Soil Texture refers to the size of the soil particles 3 Major Soil Textural Classification Coarse Medium Fine - Sand - Silt - Clay

Soil Texture Storage Coarse Medium Fine Lowest Moderate Highest

Water Movement Fastest Moderate Slowest

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 1. Soil Texture refers to the size of the soil particles The ISSS Soil Textural Classification Soil Texture Clay Silt Fine Sand Coarse Sand Diameter range (mm) <0.002 0.02 0.002 0.20 0.02 2.00 0.20

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 2. Soil Structure refers to the shape and arrangement of the soil particles and voids Soil Texture Coarse Medium Fine Shape Granular/Spherical Blocklike Platelike Arrangement Rhombic/Cube Columnar Like sheets of paper placed on top of each other

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING 3. Soil Bulk Density ratio of oven-dry mass of soil to its bulk volume
b b

= (OD)/(Vb) = soil bulk density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3)

OD = soil oven dry mass (g, kg, lbs) Vb = soil bulk volume (cm3, m3, ft3) Vb = Vs + Va + Vw Vs = volume of soil particles (cm3 , m3 , ft3) Va = volume of air in the soil (same units as above) Vw = volume of water in the soil (same units as above) The more compact the soil, the higher the bulk density. The finer the soil texture, the higher the bulk density. Bulk density is lowest at the top and highest at the bottom of a soil column. Soil Texture Coarse Medium Fine Bulk Density Lowest Moderate Highest

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 4. Soil Apparent Specific Gravity ratio of soil bulk density to the density of water As = (
b/ w )

As = soil apparent specific gravity (unitless)

= soil bulk density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3) = water density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3)

The more compact the soil, the higher the As. The finer the soil texture, the higher the As. As is lowest at the top and highest at the bottom of a soil column. Soil Texture Coarse Medium Fine As Lowest Moderate Highest

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 5. Soil Particle Density ratio of oven-dry mass of a single soil particle to the volume of that single soil particle
p

= (oven-dry mass of a single soil particle)/(volume of that single soil particle) = soil particle density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3)

The more compact the soil, the higher the particle density. The finer the soil texture, the lower the particle density. Particle density is lowest at the top and highest at the bottom of a soil column. Soil Texture Coarse Medium Fine Particle Density Highest Moderate lowest

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 6. Real Specific Gravity ratio of soil particle density to the density of water Rs = (
p/ w)

Rs = real specific gravity of the soil (unitless) = soil particle density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3) p = water density (g/cm3, kg/m3, lbs/ft3) w

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 7. Soil Depth the soil column where water is applied and where plant roots grow. Soil Texture Coarse Medium Fine Soil Depth Deepest Moderate Shallowest

MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 8. Soil Porosity the space between soil particles that are occupied by air and water. Kinds of Pore Spaces Micropores dominant in fine-textured soils Macropores dominant in coarse-textured soils

Soil Texture No. of Micropores No. of Macropores Coarse Medium Fine Lowest Moderate Highest Highest Moderate Lowest

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AFFECTING STORAGE & MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL 8. Soil Infiltration the downward movement of water from the soil surface into the soil 9. Infiltration Rate the time rate at which water will percolate from a level soil surface into the soil. 10.Intake Rate the rate of infiltration from a furrow into the soil. Soil Texture Infiltration Depth/ Intake Depth Coarse Medium Fine Lowest Moderate Highest Infiltration Rate/ Intake Rate Highest Moderate Lowest

SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS 1. Wilting Point moisture content that is left in the soil when the all plant organs are wilted or virtually dead. 2. Field Capacity moisture content that is left in the soil when all gravitational or excess water has been drained. - moisture content that is left in the soil 2 to 3 days after a heavy rain or application of water. 3. Saturation Point moisture content that is present in the soil when almost all, if not all, the soil pore spaces are filled with water. 4. Available Water the difference between field capacity and wilting point of the soil - moisture content that is present in the soil and is available for plants use. - also called available moisture

SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS 4. Available Moisture the difference between field capacity and wilting point of the soil - moisture content that is present in the soil and is available for plants use. - also called available water A. M. = F.C. W.P. A.M. = available moisture or water (%, depth, volume) F.C. = soil field capacity (%, depth, volume) W.P. = soil wilting point (%, depth, volume) 5. Readily Available Moisture 75% of available moisture R.A.M. = 0.75(A.M.) = 0.75(F.C. W.P.) 6. Hygroscopic Water moisture content at wilting point and is unavailable for plants use

SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS 7. Gravitational Water water in excess of, or above, field capacity - also called superflous water, excess water, gravitational or drainage water Gravitational Water Superflous Water

Saturation Point Field Capacity Readily Available Moisture

Available Moisture

Wilting Point

SOIL MOISTURE TENSIONS At Field Capacity = -1/10 to -1/3 atmosphere At Wilting Point = - 40 to -15 atmosphere

SOIL MOISTURE EXPRESSIONS 1. Percent Moisture Content by Weight, Pw (F.W. O.D.) Pw = -------------------- X 100 (unit in %) O.D.

F.W. = fresh weight of soil sample, g O.D. = oven dry weight of soil sample, g 2. Moisture Content by Volume, Pv Pv = (Pw/100)As As = apparent specific gravity of the soil

SOIL MOISTURE EXPRESSIONS 3. Depth of Water, d d = (Pw/100)AsD = (Pv)D D = soil depth that is used to store soil moisture 4. Volume of Water, V V = Ad A = irrigated area 5. Discharge of Water, q q = (Ad)/t t = irrigation water application time 6. qt = Ad

SOIL MOISTURE TENSION

Fd

= contact angle

water surface

h = height of rise of water in the capillary tube at equilibrium Fu = 2 r cos = 75.6 dynes/cm and its specific
Fd = g( r2h)

weight is 980 dynes/cm3

At equilibrium, Fu = Fd 2 r cos = g( h = 2 cos / gr r = 2 cos / gh r2h)

QUESTIONS 1. Distinguish between the real and the apparent specific gravity of a soil. 2. What substances occupy the pore spaces of a soil? Is the percentage pore space of a soil influenced by its water content? 3. Why is the rate of water-flow into soils of importance in irrigation practice? 4. For a soil of given texture and structure, will a 1.4 meter depth of well-drained root zone soil hold twice as much irrigation water as one of 0.7 meter depth? Assume that the water table is 10 meters or more below the land surface. 5. What properties of the soil determine the percentages of these three classes of moisture in the soil: hygroscopic, capillary and gravitational?

QUESTIONS 6. Are irrigated soils that are naturally well-drained ever completely saturated? Explain. 7. How can the concept of field capacity be determined and used even though there is no point on the moisture drainage curve that uniquely defines field capacity? 8. A sharp-edged cylinder 150 mm in diameter is carefully driven into the soil so that negligible compaction occurs. A 200-millimeter column of soil is secured. The wet weight is 5525 grams and the dry weight is 4950 grams. a) What is the percent moisture on a dry weight basis? b) What is the apparent specific gravity of the soil?

QUESTIONS 9. A cylinder was carefully pushed into the soil without compressing or disturbing the soil. The cross-sectional area of the cylinder was 0.025 m2. The length of the column within the cylinder was 0.30 m. The weight of the soil within the cylinder was 9.5 kg when it was dried. The weight of the soil before drying was 11.4 kg. Determine Pw, A, Pv. 10. A stream of 115 lps is used to apply 130 hectare-mm of water per hectare to a 3.5-hectare field. How long will it take to irrigate the field? 11.An irrigator uses a stream of 100 lps for two days (48 hours) to irrigate 12 hectares of sugar beets. What is the average depth of water applied?

QUIZ 070507 A cylinder was carefully pushed into the soil without compressing or disturbing the soil. The crosssectional area of the cylinder was 0.025 m2. The length of the column within the cylinder was 0.30 m. The weight of the soil within the cylinder was 9.5 kg when it was dried. The weight of the soil before drying was 11.4 kg. Determine Pw, As, Pv.

QUESTIONS 12. A farmer desires to irrigate a border which is 12 meters wide and 150 meters long. He wants to apply an average of 75-mm depth of water to the area with a stream of 60 lps. How long will it take him to irrigate this border? 13.The soil moisture at field capacity is 27.2% and the moisture content at the time of irrigating is 19.0%. The apparent specific gravity is 1.3 and the depth of soil to be wetted is 1 meter. a) How many hectare-mm/hectare of water must be applied? b) How long will it take to irrigate the 5 hectares with a 115 lps stream?

QUESTIONS 14.Soil samples indicate an average moisture and apparent specific gravity in the soil as follows: Depth 0-300 mm 300-600 mm 600-900 mm 900-1200 mm P(dry wt) 14.7 15.3 17.6 18.2 A 1.34 1.36 1.32 1.30

Compute the depth of water held in the first 1.2 meters.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 1. Feel and Appearance Method Wet soils dark in appearance Dry soils light in appearance Clay soils sticky when wet, forms clods together with other soil particles when moist, serves as a binder to other soil particles making up the soil Medium-textured soils powdery when dry, crumbles when dry Coarse-textured soils granular, particles do not cling to each other even when wet, crumbles when dry Feel and Appearance method could not quantify the amount of soil moisture. It can only say if the soil is wet, moist or dry.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 2. Resistance of Soil to Penetration Hard objects like steel rod, shovel, hoe, soil auger, etc. can be used to test the resistance of soil to penetration. Dry soils are relatively difficult to penetrate than wet soils. Like the Feel and Appearance Method, the Resistance of Soil to Penetration could not quantify the amount of moisture that is present in the soil. It can only tell if the soil is wet, moist or dry. 3. Oven-drying or Gravimetric Method Soil sample of at least 200 grams should be collected from the field. The fresh weight of the soil sample is determined before it is oven-dried for 12 to 24 hours at a temperature of about 105oC, after which the soil oven-dry weight is determined. Moisture content is then computed by (F.W. O.D.) Pw = ------------------ x 100 O.D.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 4. Soil Tensiometer Method Soil tensiometer measures soil moisture tension. The higher the soil moisture tension, the lower the soil moisture and vice versa It makes use of a capillary tube (transparent plastic pipe) of about one inch in diameter and varies in length. The lower end of the tube is plugged with a porous cup while its upper end is used to fill the tube with water. A vacuum gage pressure is attached to the upper end of the tube. The gage is calibrated from zero to 100. Gage readings towards the zero mark corresponds to high soil moisture. The porous cup serves as passageway for water into or out of the tube. When the soil is dry, water from the tensiometer will be emitted by passing through the porous cup and then absorbed by the soil. The gage of the tensiometer registers the corresponding soil moisture tension. When the soil is wet, water from the soil enters the tensiometer through the porous cup. The gage registers the corresponding soil moisture tension.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 4. Soil Tensiometer Method Soil tensiometer is calibrated against the oven-drying method before it could be used. Pw

Tensiometer Reading

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 4. Soil Tensiometer Method Soil tensiometer is calibrated against the oven-drying method before it could be used. Vacuum Gage Soil Surface

Capillary tube Porous Cup

Typical Installation of Tensiometer in the Field

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 4. Soil Tensiometer Method It is relatively easy and simple to use. Cheap. Needs calibration. 5. Electrical Resistance Method An electrical resistance meter, sometimes called Bouyoucous meter, measures the amount of electrical resistance present in the soil. One end of two lead wires are imbedded and molded in a porous block, made of gypsum of plaster of Paris. The porous block is installed at the required soil depth. It serves as a passageway for moisture that is present in the soil. The other end of the two lead wires are connected to an electrical resistance meter. The higher the soil moisture, the lower is the corresponding electrical resistance.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 5. Electrical Resistance Method One end of two lead wires are imbedded and molded in a porous block, made of gypsum of plaster of Paris. The porous block is installed at the required soil depth. It serves as a passageway for moisture that is present in the soil. The other end of the two lead wires are connected to an electrical resistance meter. The higher the soil moisture, the lower is the corresponding electrical resistance.
Switch Electrical Resistance Meter Soil Surface

Lead wires

Porous Block

Typical installation of an electrical resistance meter and porous block in the field.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 4. Soil Tensiometer Method Electrical Resistance Method It is relatively easy and simple to use. Cheap. Needs calibration. Pw

Resistance Meter Reading

Sample electrical resistance calibration curve.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 6. Neutron Scattering Method A neutron source (e.g. Am/Be) is used to measure the amount of moisture present in the soil. The neutron source is imbedded in the soil at the required soil depth where moisture is to be measured. The neutron source emits fast neutrons. Some fast neutrons will then collide with the hydrogen molecules that are present in the soil which will then be slowed down. Hydrogen molecules will be present in the soil if there is water or moisture in it. The number of slowed neutrons will be counted by the neutron scattering device. The higher the moisture content present in the soil, the higher will be the number of hydrogen molecules present in the soil and the higher will be the number of slowed down neutrons.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 6. Neutron Scattering Method
Digital Counter of No. of Slowed Neutrons Switch Soil Surface

Connecting Cable

PVC or Aluminum Pipe (Shield)

Pre-Amplifier Section Neutron Source

Typical installation of a Hydroprobe, a neutron scattering device for soil moisture measurement.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 6. Neutron Scattering Method It is the most accurate method of soil moisture measurement. It is the most expensive method of soil moisture measurement. It needs calibration.

CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture: 7. Use of Thermal Properties (Thermocouple) Thermocouple is used to measure temperature. Soil temperature changes according to the change in soil moisture content. The wetter the soil, the lower is its temperature and vice versa. However, soil temperature also varies with depth. The deeper the soil, the lower is the temperature. Change in depth affects soil moisture measurement.

CHAPTER 4. FLOW OF WATER INTO AND THROUGH SOILS Water has energy. Energy of Flowing Water. 1. Potential Energy, P. E. = (P/ ) + y (P/ ) = pressure head = specific weight of water y = elevation head

CHAPTER 4. FLOW OF WATER INTO AND THROUGH SOILS Energy of Flowing Water. 2. Kinetic Energy, K. E. = (v2/2g) v2/2g = velocity head Combined Energy H = P.E. + K.E. or H = (P/ ) + y + v2/2g This is also known as Bernoullis equation. Hydraulic head, h = (P/ ) + y

1 Piezometers Water table

Ground surface (P1)/ (P2)/ k = soil hydraulic conductivity y1 Direction of water flow y2

Impermeable layer

h1 = p1/ + y1 h2 = p2/ + y2

Hydraulic gradient, i1 = h1/L,

i2 = h2/L

i = h/L

Hydraulic head loss, hl = h1 h2 = h

1 Piezometers Water table

Ground surface (P1)/ h1 (P2)/ k = soil hydraulic conductivity y1 Direction of water flow y2 h2

Impermeable layer

h1 = p1/ + y1 h2 = p2/ + y2

Hydraulic gradient, i1 = h1/L,

i2 = h2/L

i = h/L

Hydraulic head loss, hl = h1 h2 = h

Example: At Piezometers 1 and 2: h1 = (p1/ ) + y1 = 50 m h2 = (p2/ ) + y2 = 40 m Flow distance, L = 100 m i = ( h/L) = (h1 h2)/L = (50 40)/100 = 10/100 i = slope or hydraulic gradient k = 350 m/year A = 1000 m wide, 20 m deep Q = Aki = (1000 x 20)(350)(10/100) = 700,000 m3/yr Q = flow through the section 1000 m wide, 20 m deep

1 Piezometers Water table

Ground surface (P1)/ h1 (P2)/ h2 y1 Direction of water flow

y2

Impermeable layer

h1 = p1/ + y1 h2 = p2/ + y2

Hydraulic gradient, i1 = h1/L,

i2 = h2/L

i = h/L

Hydraulic head loss, hl = h1 h2 = h

1 Piezometers Water table 7m

Ground surface (P1)/ h1 h2 y1 Direction of water flow y2 Impermeable layer 1m 16 m (P2)/ 2m

h1 = p1/ + y1 = 23 + y1 h2 = p2/ + y2 = 3 + y2 y2 = y1 + 14 h2 = 3 + y1 + 14 = 17 + y1 hL = h1 h2 = (23 + y1) (17 + y1) = 6

hL/L = 6/(16-2) = 0.43 If k = 2 m/yr & A = 1 ha, then v = khL/L = 2(0.43) = 0.86 m/yr Q = Av = 1ha x 0.86 m/yr = 0.86 ha-m/yr

CONSTANT HEAD PERMEAMETER v = ki = khL/L

A=

d2/4

d = diameter of permeameter Q = Av = AkhL/L

Graduated cylinder

k = QL/(AhL)

Example: