Machining

A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool

is used to mechanically cut away material so that the
desired part geometry remains

• Most common application: to shape metal parts

• Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all

manufacturing processes in its capability to produce
a diversity of part geometries and geometric features
 Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but
it lacks the precision and accuracy of machining
 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND
MACHINE TOOLS
• Turning and Related Operations
• Drilling and Related Operations
• Milling
• Machining Centers and Turning Centers
• Other Machining Operations
• High Speed Machining
 Classification of Machined Parts
1. Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
2. Nonrotational (also called prismatic) - block-like or
plate-like

Figure 22.1 - Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b)
nonrotational, shown here by block and flat parts
Machining Operations and Part Geometry

Each machining operation produces a characteristic part

geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between the tool and the
workpart
• Generating – part geometry is determined by
the feed trajectory of the cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the
shape of the cutting tool
Figure: Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper
turning, (c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
Figure :Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling,
and (c) broaching
Figure - Combination of forming and generating to create
shape: (a) thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling
 Turning

A single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
• Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
• Variations of turning that are performed on a
lathe:
 Facing
 Contour turning
 Chamfering
 Cutoff
 Threading
Figure - Turning operation
Facing
Tool is fed
radially inward

Figure : facing
 Contour Turning
Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation,
tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus
creating a contoured form

Figure : contour turning

 Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder,
forming a "chamfer"

Figure : chamfering
 Cutoff
Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to
cut off end of part

Figure : cutoff
 Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of
rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a large
feed rate, thus creating threads

Figure : threading
 Boring
• Difference between boring and turning:
 Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an
existing hole
 Turning is performed on the outside diameter of
an existing cylinder
• In effect, boring is an internal turning operation
• Boring machines
 Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of
the axis of rotation of machine spindle
Figure - A vertical boring mill –for large, heavy workparts
 Drilling
• Creates a round hole in
a workpart
• Contrasts with boring
which can only enlarge
an existing hole
• Cutting tool called a
drill
or drill bit
• Customarily performed Figure 21.3 (b) drilling
on a drill press
 Reaming
Used to slightly
enlarge a hole,
provide better
tolerance on
diameter, and
improve surface
finish

Figure 22.14 -
Machining operations
related to drilling:
(a) reaming
 Tapping
Used to provide
internal screw
threads on
an existing
hole
Tool called a tap

Figure 22.14 (b) tapping

 Counterboring
Provides a stepped
hole, in which a
larger diameter
follows a smaller
diameter partially
into the hole

Figure 22.14 (c) counterboring

 Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating
tool with multiple cutting edges
• Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction
• Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible
either by cutter path or shape
• Other factors and terms:
 Milling is an interrupted cutting operation
 Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges
called "teeth"
 Machine tool called a milling machine
 Figure - Two forms of milling:
(a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling
 Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling

• Peripheral milling
 Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
 Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
 Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled
 Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
 Slotting
• Width of cutter is less than workpiece width, creating
a slot in the work

Figure 22.18
(b) slotting
 Conventional
Face Milling
Cutter overhangs work
on both sides

Figure 22.20
(a) conventional face milling
 End Milling
Cutter diameter is less
than work width, so
a slot is cut into
part

Figure 22.20 - (c) end milling

 Profile Milling
Form of end milling
in which the
outside periphery
of a flat part is
cut

Figure 22.20 (d) profile milling

 Pocket Milling
Another form of
end milling used
to mill shallow
pockets into flat
parts

Figure 22.20 (e) pocket milling

Surface Contouring
Ball-nose cutter is fed
back and forth across
the work along a
curvilinear path at close
intervals to create a
three dimensional
surface form

Figure 22.20 (f) surface contouring

Figure 22.23 (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine
Figure 22.28 - Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with
turned, milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of
operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter,
(2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole
with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff
 Shaping and Planing
• Similar operations
• Both use a single point cutting tool moved linearly
relative to the workpart

Figure 22.29 - (a) Shaping, and (b) planing

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Shaping and Planing

• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations

• Interrupted cutting
 Subjects tool to impact loading when entering
work
• Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
• Usual tooling: single point high speed steel tools
Figure 22.30 - Components of a shaper
 Broaching
• Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly relative to
work in direction of tool axis

Figure 22.33 - The broaching operation

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Broaching

Advantages:
•Good surface finish
•Close tolerances
•Variety of work shapes possible
Cutting tool called a broach
• Owing to complicated and often custom-shaped
geometry, tooling is expensive
 Internal Broaching
• Performed on internal surface of a hole
• A starting hole must be present in the part to insert
broach at beginning of stroke

Figure 22.34 - Work shapes that can be cut by internal broaching;

cross-hatching indicates the surfaces broached
 Sawing

• Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a

series of narrowly spaced teeth
• Tool called a saw blade
• Typical functions:
 Separate a workpart into two pieces
 Cut off unwanted portions of part
Figure 22.35 (a) power hacksaw –linear reciprocating motion
of hacksaw blade against work
Figure 22.35 (b) bandsaw
(vertical) – linear
continuous motion of
bandsaw blade, which is in
the form of an endless
flexible loop with teeth on
one edge
Figure 22.35 (c) circular saw – rotating saw blade provides
continuous motion of tool past workpart
 High Speed Machining (HSM)

Cutting at speeds significantly higher than those used in

conventional machining operations
• A persistent trend throughout history of machining is
higher and higher cutting speeds
• At present there is a renewed interest in HSM due to
potential for faster production rates, shorter lead
times, and reduced costs
 Requirements for High Speed Machining
• Special bearings designed for high rpm
• High feed rate capability (e.g., 50 m/min)
• CNC motion controls with “look-ahead” features to
avoid “undershooting” or “overshooting” tool path
• Balanced cutting tools, toolholders, and spindles to
minimize vibration
• Coolant delivery systems that provide higher
pressures than conventional machining
• Chip control and removal systems to cope with much
larger metal removal rates
 High Speed Machining Applications
• Aircraft industry, machining of large airframe
components from large aluminum blocks
 Much metal removal, mostly by milling
• Multiple machining operations on aluminum to
produce automotive, computer, and medical
components
 Quick tool changes and tool path control
important
• Die and mold industry
 Fabricating complex geometries from hard
materials