POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 4
Generators, Loads, Per Unit

Adopted from

Professor Tom Overbye

Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Load Models

 Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity at constant frequency

and voltage
 Electrical characteristics of individual loads matter, but usually they can
only be estimated
– actual loads are constantly changing, consisting of a large number of individual
devices
– only limited network observability of load characteristics
 Aggregate
models are typically used for analysis
 Two common models
– constant power: Si = Pi + jQi
– constant impedance: Si = |V|2 / Zi
Generator Models

 Engineering models depend upon application

 Generators are usually synchronous machines
 For generators we will use two different models:
– a steady-state model, treating the generator as a constant
real power source operating at a fixed voltage; this model
will be used for power flow and economic analysis
– a short term model treating the generator as a constant
voltage source behind a possibly time-varying reactance
Generator Models

 Fora synchronous generator, real and reactive

power outputs can be controlled
 Real power output can be increased/decreased by
increasing/decreasing the input mechanical power (e.g.
letting more steam in to the shaft chamber; thus burning
more fuel)
 Reactive power output can be increased/decreased by
increasing/decreasing field excitation dc current
Generator Connected to
Power Systems

Infinite Bus:
Xs Vt
Pm Constant Voltage
Constant Frequency
G

Infinite bus

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 Generator Equivalent Circuit
Xs

Ef
Ia Ia Xs
Ef Vt 

 Vt
Ia
Vt is Fixed (infinite Bus)
Ef is function of If
E f Vt  I a X s
Magnitude and phase of Ia
are dependant variables
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 Power equations


f Xs
t
Ia Ef
Ia Xs
Ef Vt 

 Vt
Ia
P  3 Vt I a cos 

Vt and Ef are phase quantities

Qt  3 Vt I a sin 
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 Power equations

I a X s cos  E f sin  Ef
Ia Xs
 
E f sin 
I a cos    Vt
Xs Ia
P  3 Vt I a cos 
3 Vt E f If the armature resistance is
P sin  ignored (Since RA << XS),
Xs
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 • If the armature resistance is ignored (Since RA << XS),
| E A | Sin( )
| I A | Cos( ) 
XS
3 | V || E A |
PCONV  POUT 3 | V || I A | cos( )  sin( )
XS

Figure 4-16

Simplified phasor diagram with armature resistance ignored

9
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Power Characteristics of
P
Generator
3 Vt E f
Pmax P sin 
Xs

3 Vt E f
Pmax 
Xs

l 90 o 

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 Reactive Power equations


f Xs
t
Ef
Ia Ia Xs

Ef Vt
 Vt
Ia

Qt  3 Vt I a sin  Vt and Ef are phase quantities

I a X s sin   E f cos   Vt

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 Qt  3 Vt I a sin 

I a X s sin   E f cos   Vt
3Vt
Qt  3 Vt I a sin   E f cos   Vt 
Xs
If Ef cos  > Vt ; Qt is positive and Current is lagging

If Ef cos  < Vt ; Qt is negative and Current is leading

If Ef cos  = Vt ; Qt is zero and Current is in phase

Remember: EA can always be controlled by adjusting IF
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 Example
A Y-connected synchronous generator is
connected to an infinite bus. The terminal voltage
of the generator is 5 kV, and the equivalent field
voltage is 4.8 kV. The synchronous reactance of
the machine is 10 .
Compute the maximum mechanical power the
generator can receive before it pulls out of
synchronism

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 Solution
P Vt E f
P 3 sin 
Xs
Pmax
Pm

 90
o 
l
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Phase value Line-to-line
Vt E f 5 ( 4 .8 )
Pmax  3  2.4 MW
Xs 10

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Effect of Excitation

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 Effect of Increasing Excitation

• The maximum power that CAN be delivered

increases
• The real power is unchanged (Pm unchanged)
• The power angle decreases

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 Example
• A 3-phase 11-kV, 11 MW, Y-connected
synchronous generator has a
synchronous reactance of 9 . The
generator is connected to an infinite
bus.
– Calculate the excitation voltage for a maximum
generation of 11 MW.
– If the mechanical power is unchanged, calculate
the current when the excitation increases by
10%
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Solution: Part 1

3 E f Vt
Pmax 
Xs
E f 11
11 
9
E f  9 kV
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 Solution: Part 2
3 E f Vt
P sin 
Xs
(1.1* 9) 11
11  sin 
9
  65.4o

9 *1.1 11
65.4  0
E f   Vt 0 3 3
Ia  
X s 90 9 90
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Per Unit Calculations

 A key problem in analyzing power systems is the

large number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
 This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
 This normalization is known as “per unit analysis”.

actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1

1. Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB

2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB = SB/VB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are

already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary
Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power

in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
Per Unit Example, cont’d

8kV 2
Z BLeft  0.64
100 MVA
Middle 80kV 2
ZB  64
100 MVA
2
16kV
Z BRight  2.56
100 MVA

Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
Per Unit Example, cont’d

1.00
I  0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8 
   p.u.
2
VL
SL  VL I L*
 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
Per Unit Example, cont’d

To convert back to actual values just multiply the

per unit values by their per unit base

V LActual  0.859  30.8 16 kV 13.7  30.8 kV

S LActual 0.1890 100 MVA 18.90 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 100 MVA 22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B  1250 Amps
80 kV
I Actual
Middle  0.22  30.8 Amps 275  30.8
Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3

VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B3
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
Z B  3  1
 1
SB 3S B SB
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB

3 S B3 3 S 1B S1B 1

IB    I B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit
Per Unit Change of MVA Base

 Parameters for equipment are often given using

power rating of equipment as the MVA base
 To analyze a system all per unit data must be on a
common power base
Z Old New
pu  Z   Z pu
Old 2 New 2
Old (V ) (V ) New
Hence Z pu  Old /
B B
 Z pu
SB S BNew

If V BNew V BOld
New
S
Then, ZOld B New
pu  Old Z pu
SB
Per Unit Change of Base Example

A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance of

3.69%. What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?
100
X e 0.0369  0.0683 p.u.
54
Transformer Reactance

 Transformer reactance is often specified as a

percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value
(divide by 100) on the power base of the
transformer.
 Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has
leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value on
100 MVA base? What is value in ohms (230 kV)?
100
X e 0.10  0.0286 p.u.
350
2
230
0.0286  15.1 
100
Ex 3.7 (from textbook)

Draw an impedance
diagram with all
impedances including the
load impedance marked in
per unit. Select a common
base of 100 MVA and
22kV on the generator side.
The data given below the
one-line diagram is
supplied by the equipment
manufacturers.
Ex 3.8 (from textbook)

In the previous example,

the motor operates at full-
load 0.8 pf leading and
terminal voltage is
10.45kV.
a)Determine the voltage at
the generator busbar
b)Determine the generator
and motor internal emfs.