Atomic Theory

Mrs. Mediana

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Why do metals glow when heated?

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 Models of the Atom
• A model should explain not just
what the material is made of
(composition) but also how it is
going to behave (changes).

• Rutheford’s atomic model could

not explain the chemical
properties of elements.
• Basically, it couldn’t explain why
things change color when heated. 3
Atomic Model Timeline

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Atomic Model Timeline

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 The Bohr Model
• Niels Bohr (1885-1962) was a Danish
physicist and a student of
Rutherford’s.

• In 1913, Bohr introduced his atomic

model based on the simplest atom,
hydrogen (only 1 electron)
– Bohr proposed that an electron is
found only in specific circular paths,
or orbits, around the nucleus.
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Bohr Model

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 The Bohr Model
• Each electron has a fixed energy
= an energy level.
– Electrons can jump from one energy
level to another.
– Electrons can not be or exist
between energy levels.
• A quantum of energy is the
amount of energy needed to
move an electron from one energy
level to another energy level. 8
The
The degree
degree to to
which
which they
they
move
move from
from
level
level to
to level
level
determines
determines the the
frequency
frequency of of
light
light they
they give
give
off.
off.
 Bohr Model
• To move from one level to
another, the electron must gain or
lose the right amount of energy.
• The higher the energy level, the
farther it is from the nucleus.
– Gain energy to move to higher
energy levels (away from nucleus)
– Lose energy to move to lower
energy levels (closer to nucleus)
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 The Bohr Model
• The amount of energy required to
go from one energy level to
another is the not same for the
electrons.
• Higher energy levels are closer
together. This means it takes less
energy to change levels in the
higher energy levels.

• The Bohr model was tested

with the hydrogen element
but failed to explain the
energies absorbed and
emitted by atoms with more
than one electron.
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Did you know that an element can be identified by its emission
spectra?

– When atoms absorb energy, electrons move into

higher energy levels. These electrons then lose
energy by emitting light when they return to lower
energy levels.
Mercury Nitrogen

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Fingerprints
of certain
atoms
5.3
Atomic Spectra
– When atoms absorb energy,
electrons move into higher energy
levels. These electrons then lose
energy by emitting light when
they return to lower energy
levels.
 5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
• In the Bohr model, the lone electron in
the hydrogen atom can have only
certain specific energies.
–When the electron has its lowest
possible energy, the atom is in its
ground state.
–Excitation of the electron by
absorbing energy raises the atom
from the ground state to an excited
state.
–A quantum of energy in the form of
 5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
– The light emitted by an electron
moving from a higher to a lower
energy level has a frequency
directly proportional to the energy
change of the electron.
 5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
• The three groups of lines in the
hydrogen spectrum correspond to
the transition of electrons from
higher energy levels to lower energy
levels.
Bohr’s Model

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The Quantum Mechanical Model
• Rutherford’s and Bohr’s model focused on
describing the path of the electron around the
nucleus like a particle (like a small baseball).

• Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger

(1887–1961) treated the electron as a wave.

– The modern description of the electrons in

atoms, the quantum mechanical model,
comes from the mathematical solutions to the
Schrödinger equation.

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 Electrons as Waves

EVIDENCE: DIFFRACTION PATTERNS

VISIBLE LIGHT ELECTRONS

 5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• The propeller blade has the same probability
of being anywhere in the blurry region, but
you cannot tell its location at any instant.
The electron cloud of an atom can be
compared to a spinning airplane propeller.
– The quantum model determines the
allowed energies an electron can have
and how likely it is to find the electron in
various locations around the nucleus.
 5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• The probability of
finding an electron
within a certain volume
of space surrounding
the nucleus can be
represented as a fuzzy
cloud.
– The cloud is more
dense where the
probability of finding
the electron is high.
Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom

Quantum Numbers:
• Used to describe an electron’s
behavior or likely location
• There are four with variables:
n, l, m, & s

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1. Principal Quantum Number, n

- Describes the energy of the

electron
Energy of the electron
-determined by its average
distance from the nucleus or the
principal energy level where it is.
It is an integer and its values
begin with 1 (i.e., n=1,2,3..etc)24
 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
• (fuzzy cloud) = An atomic orbital is
often thought of as a region of space in
which there is a high probability of finding
an electron.
 Quantum Mechanics

• Orbital (“electron cloud”)

– Region in space where there is
90% probability of finding an e-

Orbital Radial Distribution Curve

Probability cloud
Atomic orbital
Atomic orbital

90%
2. Azimuthal or Angular Momentum QN, l

 Describes the shape of the orbital. It designates the sublevel

which the electron is said to occupy. It is also an integer, but its
values are limited to a range of 0 to n-1. These values are:

l=0, for the electron in an orbital in the s sublevel

l=1, for the electron in an orbital in the p sublevel
l=2, for the electron in an orbital in the d sublevel
l=3, for the electron in an orbital in the f sublevel
Symbols:

s - sharp
p – principal
d – diffused
f - fundamental
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 Larger atom—
s-orbitals are
More electrons
spherically shaped.
take up more space.
Smaller atom
Smaller atom—
Fewer electrons
take up less space.
p-orbitals are
“dumbell” shaped.
z-axis
p-orbitals are
“dumbell” shaped.
x-axis
p-orbitals are
“dumbell” shaped.
y-axis
p-orbitals together
x, y, & z axes.
d-sublevel (clover-leaf shaped)

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f-sublevel (indefinite- shaped)

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 3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
 Descibes the orientation of the orbital in space. The
number is also an integer, and its values are
restricted to a range of +1 down through 0 to -1.
When l=0, ml 0 s
1

l=1, ml +1,0,-1 p
3

l=2, ml +2,+1,0,-1,-2 d
5

l=3, ml +3,+2,+1,0,-1,-2,-3 f 38
 4.Spin quantum number, ms
 Refers to the spin of an electron in a given orbital. It can only have two values: +1/2,
and -1/2. The spin of an electron can be one of two opposite directions, clockwise or
counterclockwise. Since the spin quantum number of has only two possible values, it
follows that an orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons only.

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 Shells and Orbitals and Atomic Structure
f
d
s p
•Shells of
an atom
contain a
number of
stacked
orbitals
Q2`2xqssaXXXAaaq/.qqqqqqqqqqqq/.q//q
4

1
1st and 2nd level s-orbitals
and the p-orbitals all together.
Why are Atoms Spherical?

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approac 43

h
 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
• Different atomic orbitals are denoted by letters. The s
orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

• Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but

different orientations in space.
 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
• The numbers and kinds of atomic orbitals
depend on the energy sublevel.
Energy Level, # of sublevels Letter of # of orbitals # of Total
n sublevels per sublevel electrons in electrons in
each orbital energy level
 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
• The numbers and kinds of atomic orbitals
depend on the energy sublevel.
Energy Level, # of sublevels Letter of # of orbitals # of Total
n sublevels per sublevel electrons in electrons in
(n2) each orbital energy level
( 2n2 )

1 1 s 1 2 2

s 1 2
2 2 8
p 3 6

s 1 2
3 3 p 3 6 18
d 5 10

s 1 2
4 p 3 6
4 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
 5.1
Atomic Orbitals

• The number of electrons

allowed in each of the first four
energy levels are shown here.
– A maximum of 2 electrons per
orbital
Use this to find the #
of electrons in an
energy level 2n2
 5.2
Electron Configurations
• The ways in which electrons are
arranged in various orbitals
around the nuclei of atoms are
called electron configurations.

– Three rules—the aufbau principle,

the Pauli exclusion principle, and
Hund’s rule—tell you how to find the
electron configurations of atoms.
 5.2
Electron Configurations

• Aufbau Principle
– According to the aufbau principle, electrons occupy
the orbitals of lowest energy first. In the aufbau
diagram below, each box represents an atomic orbital.
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
– According to the Pauli exclusion principle, an atomic
orbital may describe at most two electrons. To occupy
the same orbital, two electrons must have opposite
spins; that is, the electron spins must be paired.
• Hund’s Rule
– Hund’s rule states that electrons occupy orbitals of
the same energy in a way that makes the number of
electrons with the same spin direction as large as
possible.
Filling Diagram for Sublevels

Aufbau Principle
 Electron Configurations
• The electron configuration of an atom is a
shorthand method of writing the location of
electrons by sublevel.
• The sublevel is written followed by a superscript
with the number of electrons in the sublevel.
– If the 2p sublevel contains 2 electrons, it is written
2p2
 Writing Electron Configurations
• First, determine how many electrons are in
the atom. Iron has 26 electrons.
• Arrange the energy sublevels according to
increasing energy:
– 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d …
• Fill each sublevel with electrons until you
have used all the electrons in the atom:
– Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 6
• The sum of the superscripts equals the
atomic number of iron (26)
PARAMAGNETISM AND DIAMAGNETISM
Paramagnetism and diamagnetism are two types of magnetic behaviors that
arise due to the arrangement and motion of electrons in atoms or molecules.
Here’s a breakdown of their key
differences:
1. Nature of Electron Configuration:
Paramagnetism:
- Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons in their atomic or
molecular structure.
- The presence of unpaired electrons creates magnetic moments because
each unpaired electron generates a small magnetic field.
Diamagnetism:
- Diamagnetic materials have only paired electrons. In a paired electron

system, the magnetic fields generated by electrons cancel each other

out.
As a result, these materials have no permanent magnetic moment and
are weakly repelled by a magnetic field.

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2. Examples:
Paramagnetic Materials:
Aluminum, platinum, transition metal ions (like Fe³⁺, Mn²⁺), oxygen
(O₂), and certain free radicals.
Diamagnetic Materials:Copper, bismuth, water, most organic compounds,
and superconductors (in their superconducting state).
Summary Table
Property Paramagnetism Diamagnetism
Electron configuration Unpaired electrons Paired
electrons Effect of magnetic field Attracted to magnetic field
Repelled by magnetic
field
Induced magnetic moment Aligns with external field Opposes
external field Magnetization Weak and temporary
Weak and negative Examples Aluminum, oxygen, iron ions
Copper, bismuth, water

In short, paramagnetism occurs in materials with unpaired electrons,

resulting in attraction to a magnetic field, while diamagnetism is a general
property of all materials with paired electrons, leading to weak repulsion in
the presence of a magnetic field.
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 Electron Configuration Practice

Ne

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 Electron Configuration Practice
• Write a ground state electron
configuration for these ions.

O2-

Na+

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 Electron Configuration Practice
• An excited atom has an electron or electrons which are not
in the lowest energy state. Excited atoms are unstable
energetically. The electrons eventually fall to a lower
level. * is used to indicate an excited atom. For example:
*Li 1s2 3p1. (The ground state for Li is 1s2 2s1.)

• Write an excited electron configuration for the following

atoms.

• *Al

• *K
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 Electron Configurations
and the Periodic Table
• The periodic table can be used as a guide for electron
configurations.
• The period number is the value of n.
• Groups 1A and 2A have the s-orbital filled.
• Groups 3A - 8A have the p-orbital filled.
• Groups 3B - 2B have the d-orbital filled.
• The lanthanides and actinides have the f-orbital filled.
 Blocks and Sublevels
• We can use the periodic table to predict which
sublevel is being filled by a particular element.
 Noble Gas Core Electron Configurations
• Recall, the electron configuration for Na is:
Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
• We can abbreviate the electron configuration
by indicating the innermost electrons with the
symbol of the preceding noble gas.
• The preceding noble gas with an atomic
number less than sodium is neon, Ne. We
rewrite the electron configuration:
Na: [Ne] 3s1
 Electron Configurations
Condensed Electron Configurations
• Neon completes the 2p subshell.
• Sodium marks the beginning of a new row.
• So, we write the condensed electron configuration for
sodium as
Na: [Ne] 3s1
• [Ne] represents the electron configuration of neon.
• Core electrons: electrons in [Noble Gas].
• Valence electrons: electrons outside of [Noble Gas].
 5.2
Electron Configurations
• Orbital Filling Diagram
 5.2
Exceptional Electron Configurations
• Some actual electron
configurations differ from those
assigned using the aufbau
principle because half-filled
sublevels are not as stable as
filled sublevels, but they are
more stable than other
configurations.
 5.2
Exceptional Electron Configurations
• Exceptions to the
aufbau principle are
due to subtle electron-
electron interactions in
orbitals with very
similar energies.
• Copper has an electron
configuration that is an
exception to the
aufbau principle.