Open Channels

Flow Classification by Depth

The most common method of classifying open-channel flows is by the rate of change of the
free-surface depth. The simplest and most widely analyzed case is uniform flow, where the
depth and area (hence the velocity in steady flow) remain constant.

If the channel slope or cross section changes or there is an obstruction in the flow, then the
depth changes and the flow is said to be varied. The flow can be gradually varying or rapidly
varying.

The classes can be summarized as follows:

1. Uniform flow (constant depth and slope)
2. Varied flow:
a. Gradually varied
b. Rapidly varied
Typically, uniform flow is separated from rapidly varying flow by a region of
gradually varied flow. G
Speed of Surface Waves and the Froude
Number
 Slow flow – will have time to gradually adjust to changes downstream.
 Fast flow – will also sometimes gradually adjust but in some situations will
do so “violently” (hydraulic jump)
 The speed at which surface waves travel along the surface is key to
defining more precisely the notions of slow and fast.
 For waves of relatively small amplitude:

*The Froude number denominator*

Hence the speed of a surface disturbance depends on the local fluid depth.
For example, it explains why waves “crash” as they approach the beach.
 Different responses of slow and fast flows to a
downstream disturbance

To illustrate this, consider a flow moving at speed V, which

experiences a disturbance at some point downstream. (The
disturbance could be caused by a bump in the channel floor
or by a barrier, for example.) The disturbance will travel
upstream at speed c relative to the fluid. If the fluid speed is
slow, V < c, and the disturbance will travel upstream at
absolute speed (c - V). However, if the fluid speed is fast, V >
c, and the disturbance cannot travel upstream and instead is
washed downstream at absolute speed (V - c). This leads to
radically different responses of slow and fast flows to a
downstream disturbance.
Flow Classification by Froude Number
A second and very useful classification of open-channel flow is by the dimensionless
Froude number, Fr, which is the ratio of channel velocity to the speed of propagation of a
small-disturbance wave in the channel.

For a rectangular or very wide constant-depth channel, this takes the form:

Where y is the water depth. The flow behaves differently depending on these three flow
regimes:
Froude Number
Alternate Stages of Flow
There are two stages (depths) of flow that have the same energy content.

1. The lower stage: where Froude number is greater than 1 and therefore characterized as
rapid-shooting flow and .

2. The upper stage: where Froude number is less than 1 and therefore
characterized as tranquil flow and

Critical Depth: is the depth corresponding to a minimum energy content

and the Froude number is equal to 1 and is characterized by a wavy
surface.
Upper Stage
Critical
Lower stage
Recalling that the specific energy, E, indicates actual energy (kinetic plus potential/
pressure per unit mass flow rate) being carried by the flow, we see that a given flow, Q,
can have a range of energies, E, and corresponding flow depths, y.

For a given flow, Q, and specific energy, E, there are two possible flow depths, y; these are
called alternate depths.
We can have a flow at depth or depth . The first flow has large depth and is moving
slowly, and the second flow is shallow but fast moving. The plot graphically indicates this:
For the first flow, is made up of a large and small /2g; for the second flow, is made up of
a small and large We will see later that we can switch from one flow to another.

We can also see that for a given Q, there is always one flow for which the specific energy
is minimum. where is the specific energy at critical conditions.
Critical Depth: Minimum Specific
Energy
The critical depth formula applicable to any shape is:

Where:
- is the cross-sectional area at critical depth
B – is the top width of the water surface.
When the channel is rectangular (very wide or wide channel)

Where q= discharge per unit width of the channel = Q/B

Prob. 1
A rectangular channel carries a discharge of when flowing to a depth of 1..20 m. If the
width of the canal is 10 m, compute the ff:

a.) minimum specific energy

Prob. 2
A rectangular canal is to discharge per meter width of channel with a minimum energy
content. Compute the ff:

a.) minimum energy content

b.) the critical depth
c.) the velocity of flow
Prob. 3
Water is flowing in a rectangular flume with a velocity of 3.75 m/s and a depth of
0.96m. Calculate the ff.

a.) Froude Number

b.) The specific energy
c.) the alternate depth of flow
Prob. 4
Water flows in a 3-m wide channel at a depth of 1.20 m. The channel bed is laid on a
slope of 1.5 m per km and the roughness coefficient is 0.013.

a.) What is the flow rate?

b.) What is the critical depth?
c.) What is the Froude Number?
d.) Can a hydraulic jump occur?
Hydraulic Jump
A channel flow can accelerate from subcritical to critical to supercritical flow and then
return to subcritical flow through a sort of normal shock called a hydraulic jump. This is
illustrated in Fig. 10.5. The flow upstream of the sluice gate is subcritical. It then
accelerates to critical and supercritical flow as it passes under the gate, which serves as a
sort of “nozzle.” Further downstream the flow “shocks” back to subcritical flow because
the downstream “receiver” height is too high to maintain supercritical flow
In open-channel flow a supercritical flow can change quickly back to a subcritical flow by
passing through a hydraulic jump, as in Fig. 10.5. Being extremely turbulent and
agitated, the hydraulic jump is a very effective energy dissipator and is a
feature of stilling-basin and spillway applications. It is very important that
such jumps be located on specially designed aprons; otherwise, the
channel bottom will be badly scoured by the agitation. Jumps also mix
fluids very effectively and have application to sewage and water
treatment designs.
The principal parameter affecting hydraulic jump performance is the
upstream Froude number Fr1 5 V1/(gy1) 1/2. The Reynolds number and
channel geometry have only a secondary effect
Prob. 5

Water is moving in a rectangular channel to have a Froude number of The channel is

5m wide and the depth of flow is 1.0 m. If the water undergoes a jump, compute the
following:

a.) The depth of flow after the jump

b.) The Froude Number after the jump
c.) the head lost
Prob. 6
The depths before and after a hydraulic jump are 1.2 m and 1.8 in a 2-m wide channel.
Determine:
a.) The flow rate?
b.) The Froude numbers before and after the jump
c.) The head lost in the jump.
Prob. 7
Water flows in a triangular channel having sides sloping 1:1 and a depth of 0.40 m. If
n=0.015 and the bed is laid on a slope of 0.009, determine the following:

a.) The flow rate

b.) The Froude Number
c.) The alternate depth of flow
d.) The critical depth
e.) Can a hydraulic jump occur? What is the energy dissipated in watts?
Prob. 8

An equilateral triangular duct having a horizontal base of width 1 m,

carries a critical flow of . Assuming n = 0.016, calculate:

a.) the critical depth

b.) critical velocity
c.) critical slope
Prob. 9
Determine:

a.) specific energy if the depth of flow in a parabolic channel is 1.2 m and
the discharge is 4.5
b.) The Froude number at that depth
c.) critical depth of parabolic section
d.) If a hydraulic jump can occur, what will be the depth after the jump?

The cross-sectional dimensions of the channel are:

height = 2.4 m
Width across the top is 1.8 m
Assume UNIFORM FLOW
Prob. 10

Water flows at the rate of in a trapezoidal channel having a base width

3m, depth of 1m, and sides sloping 4H:3V. If the canal is filled with
concrete (n=0.013), determine the:

a.) depth after the jump

b.) the Froude number
Prob. 6
The depths before and after a hydraulic jump are 1.2 m and 1.8 in a 2-m wide channel.
Determine:
a.) The flow rate?
b.) The Froude numbers before and after the jump
c.) The head lost in the jump.
NON-UNIFORM
FLOW
Prob.

A rectangular concrete channel 4.5 m wide is carrying water. At an

upstream point, the depth of water is 1.5 m and at a downstream point
300 m away, the depth of flow is 1.17 m. If the channel bed slope is 0.001,
find the approximate flow rate. Use n=0.013
Prob.

A rectangular concrete channel 4.5 m wide is carrying water. At an

upstream point, the depth of water is 1.5 m and at a downstream point
300 m away, the depth of flow is 1.17 m. If the channel bed slope is 0.001,
find the approximate flow rate. Use n=0.013
Prob.

Water is moving with a velocity of 0.3 m/s and a depth of 0.9 m in a

rectangular channel. It approaches a smooth rise in the channel bed of 0.3
m. What should the estimated depth be after the rise?
Prob.

A trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 5m and side slopes of 2

horizontal to 1 vertical has a horizontal curve with a radius of 30 m
without superelevation. If the discharge is 22 m^3/s and the water surface
at the inside of the curve is 1.5 m above the channel bottom, find the
water surface elevation at the outside of the curve. Assume the flow is
subcritical.
Prob.

Uniform flow occurs at a depth of 2.40m in a 3.60 m wide rectangular channel. The
channel bed slope is 0.0018 an n=0.015. Neglecting head loss, what height of bump
extending over the entire channel width, is required to create a critical depth at the
bump. Also determine the behavior of the stream as it passes thru the bump.