Computational Complexity

Theory

Lecture 2: Classes P & NP, Reductions,

NP-completeness

Indian Institute of
Science
Complexity classes
P and FP
Decision Problems
In the initial part of this course, we’ll focus
primarily on decision problems.
Decision Problems
In the initial part of this course, we’ll focus
primarily on decision problems.

Decision problems can be naturally

identified with boolean functions, i.e.
functions from {0,1}* to {0,1}.
Decision Problems
In the initial part of this course, we’ll focus
primarily on decision problems.

Decision problems can be naturally

identified with boolean functions, i.e.
functions from {0,1}* to {0,1}.

Boolean functions can be naturally

identified with sets of {0,1} strings, also
called languages.
Decision Problems

Decision problems Boolean functions

Languages

Definition. We say a TM M decides a

language L ⊆ {0,1}* if M computes fL, where
fL(x) = 1 if and only if x ∈ L.
Complexity Class P
Let T: N N be some function.

Definition: A language L is in DTIME(T(n))

if there’s a TM that decides L in time
O(T(n)).

c>
Defintion: Class P = ∪ DTIME (nc).
0
Complexity Class P
Let T: N N be some function.

Definition: A language L is in DTIME(T(n))

if there’s a TM that decides L in time
O(T(n)).

c>
Defintion: Class P = ∪ DTIME (nc).
0

Deterministic polynomial-time
Complexity Class P : Examples
Cycle detection (DFS)
 Check if a given graph has a cycle.
Complexity Class P : Examples
Cycle detection

Solvabililty of a system of linear equations

(Gaussian elimination)
 Given a system of linear equations over Q check if
there exists a common solution to all the linear
equations.
Complexity Class P : Examples
Cycle detection

Solvabililty of a system of linear equations

Perfect matching (Edmonds 1965)

 Check if a given graph has a perfect matching
Complexity Class P : Examples
Cycle detection

Solvabililty of a system of linear equations

Perfect matching

Primality testing (AKS test 2002)

 Check if a number is prime
Polynomial time Turing Machines

Definition. A TM M is a polynimial time TM

if there’s a polynomial function q: N N
such that for every input x ∈ {0,1}*, M
halts within q(|x|) steps.
Polynomial function. q(n) = nc for some
constant c
Class (functional) P
What if a problem is not a decision
problem? Like the task of adding two
integers.
Class (functional) P
What if a problem is not a decision
problem? Like the task of adding two
integers.
One way is to focus on the i-th bit of the
output and make it a decision problem.
(Is the i-th bit, on input x, 1?)
Class (functional) P
What if a problem is not a decision
problem? Like the task of adding two
integers.
One way is to focus on the i-th bit of the
output and make it a decision problem.

Alternatively, we define a class called

functional P or FP.
Class (functional) P
What if a problem is not a decision problem?
Like the task of adding two integers.
One way is to focus on the i-th bit of the
output and make it a decision problem.

 We say that a problem or a function f:

{0,1}* {0,1}* is in FP (functional P) if
there’s a polynomial-time TM that computes
f.
Complexity Class FP : Examples

Greatest Common Divisor (Euclid ~300

BC)
 Given two integers a and b, find their gcd.
Complexity Class FP : Examples

Greatest Common Divisor

Counting paths in a DAG (homework)

 Find the number of paths between two vertices in a
directed
acyclic graph.
Complexity Class FP : Examples

Greatest Common Divisor

Counting paths in a DAG

Maximum matching (Edmonds 1965)

 Find a maximum matching in a given graph
Complexity Class FP : Examples

Greatest Common Divisor

Counting paths in a DAG

Maximum matching

Linear Programming (Khachiyan 1979,

Karmarkar 1984)
 Optimize a linear objective function subject to linear
(in)equality constraints
Complexity class NP
Complexity Class NP
Solving a problem is generally harder than
verifying a given solution to the problem.
Complexity Class NP
Solving a problem is generally harder than
verifying a given solution to the problem.

Class NP captures the set of decision

problems whose solutions are efficiently
verifiable.
Complexity Class NP
Solving a problem is generally harder than
verifying a given solution to the problem.

Class NP captures the set of decision

problems whose solutions are efficiently
verifiable.
Nondeterministic polynomial-
time
Complexity Class NP
Definition. A language L ⊆ {0,1}* is in NP
if there’s a polynomial function p: N N
and a polynomial time TM M (called the
verifier) such that for every x,

x∈L ∃u ∈ {0,1}p(|x|) s.t. M(x,

u) = 1
Complexity Class NP
Definition. A language L ⊆ {0,1}* is in NP
if there’s a polynomial function p: N N
and a polynomial time TM M (called the
verifier) such that for every x,

x∈L ∃u ∈ {0,1}p(|x|) s.t. M(x,

u) = 1
u is called a certificate or
witness for x (w.r.t L and
M) if x ∈ L
Complexity Class NP
Definition. A language L ⊆ {0,1}* is in NP
if there’s a polynomial function p: N N
and a polynomial time TM M (called the
verifier) such that for every x,

x∈L ∃u ∈ {0,1}p(|x|) s.t. M(x,

u) = 1

It follows that verifier M cannot be fooled!

Complexity Class NP
 Definition.
A language L ⊆ {0,1}* is in NP if
there’s a polynomial function p: N N and a
polynomial time TM M (called the verifier)
such that for every x,

x∈L ∃u ∈ {0,1}p(|x|) s.t. M(x, u)

=1

 Class
NP contains those problems (languages)
which have such efficient verifiers.
Class NP : Examples
Vertex cover
 Given a graph G and an integer k, check if G
has a vertex cover of size k.
Class NP : Examples
Vertex cover

0/1 integer programming

 Given a system of linear (in)equalities with
integer coefficients, check if there’s a 0-1
assignment to the variables that satisfy all the
(in)equalities.
Class NP : Examples
Vertex cover

0/1 integer programming

Integer factoring
 Given 2 numbers n and U, check if n has a
nontrivial factor less than equal to U.
Class NP : Examples
Vertex cover

0/1 integer programming

Integer factoring

Graph isomorphism
Given 2 graphs, check if they are isomorphic
Is P = NP ?
Obviously, P ⊆ NP.

Whether or not P = NP is an outstanding

open question in mathematics and TCS!
Is P = NP ?
Obviously, P ⊆ NP.

Whether or not P = NP is an outstanding

open question in mathematics and TCS!

Solving a problem does seem harder than

verifying its solution, so most people
believe that P ≠ NP.
Is P = NP ?
Obviously, P ⊆ NP.

Whether or not P = NP is an outstanding

open question in mathematics and TCS!

P = NP has many weird consequences,

and if true, will pose a serious threat to
secure and efficient cryptography.
Is P = NP ?
Obviously, P ⊆ NP.

Whether or not P = NP is an outstanding

open question in mathematics and TCS!

Mathematics has gained much from

attempts to prove such negative statements
—Galois theory, Godel’s incompleteness,
Fermat’s Last Theorem, Turing’s
undecidability, Continuum hypothesis etc.
Is P = NP ?
Obviously, P ⊆ NP.

Whether or not P = NP is an outstanding

open question in mathematics and TCS!

Complexity theory has several of such

intriguing unsolved questions.
Karp reductions
Polynomial time reduction
Definition.
We say a language L1 ⊆ {0,1}*
is polynomial time (Karp) reducible to a
language L2 ⊆ {0,1}* if there’s a
polynomial time computable function f s.t.
x∈L1 f(x)∈L2

L1 f(L1)

L2

L2
L1 f(L1
)
Polynomial time reduction
 Definition.
We say a language L1 ⊆ {0,1}* is
polynomial time (Karp) reducible to a language
L2 ⊆ {0,1}* if there’s a polynomial time
computable function f s.t.
x∈L1 f(x)∈L2

 Notation. L1 ≤p L2

 Observe. If L1 ≤p L2 and L2 ≤p L3 then L1 ≤p

L3 .
NP-completeness
Definition. A language L’ is NP-hard if for
every L in NP, L ≤p L’. Further, L’ is NP-
complete if L’ is in NP and is NP-hard.

Observe. If L’ is NP-hard and L’ is in P then

P = NP. If L’ is NP-complete then L’ in P if
and only if P = NP.
NPC Hardest problems inside NP in
the sense that if one NPC
NP problem is in P then all problems
in NP is in P.
P
NP-completeness
 Definition. A language L’ is NP-hard if for
every L in NP, L ≤p L’. Further, L’ is NP-
complete if L’ is in NP and is NP-hard.

 Observe. If L’ is NP-hard and L’ is in P then P

= NP. If L’ is NP-complete then L’ in P if and
only if P = NP.

 Exercise.Let L1 ⊆ {0,1}* be any language and

L2 be a language in NP. If L1 ≤p L2 then L1 is
also in NP.
Few words on reductions
 As to how we define a reduction from one
language to the other (or one function to the
other) is usually guided by a question on whether
two complexity classes are different or identical.

 For
polynomial time reductions, the question is
whether P equals NP.

 Reductions help us define complete problems

(the ‘hardest’ problems in a class) which in turn
help us compare the complexity classes under
consideration.
Class P and NP : Examples
Vertex cover (NP-complete)
0/1 integer programming (NP-complete)
Integerfactoring (unlikely to be NP-
complete)
Graph isomorphism (Quasi-P)
Primality testing (P)
Linear programming (P)
How to show existence of an NPC
problem?

LetL’ = { (α, x, 1m, 1t ) : there exists a u

∈{0,1}m s.t. Mα accepts (x, u) in t steps }

Observation. L’ is NP-complete.

The language L’ involves Turing machine in

its definition. Next, we’ll see an example of
an NP-complete problem that is arguably
more natural.