PART III

SCALAR AND VECTOR ANALYSIS

In formulating physical problems, it is often
necessary to associate with every point (x, y, z)
of a region R of space some vector F (x, y, z). It
is usual to call F (x, y, z) a vector function and
to say that a vector field exists in R. Similarly, if
a scalar is defined at every point (x, y,
z) of R then a scalar field is said to exist in R.
 3.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS
Suppose a scalar function is
differentiable in R. Then the gradient of
(usually denoted by grad )is defined as
    

grad  i j k
x y k (3.1)
Where i, j, and k are unit vectors in the Ox, Oy
and Oz directions. z


k

j
O y

i

x
 So grad  is a vector function whose x, y, and z
components are the first partial derivatives of 
x, y, z w.r.t. x, y, and z respectively.
Example 3.1: if  x, y, z = xyz + 2x
Then    
grad   i  j  k  
 x y z 
is known as vector differential operator
 grad  yz  2 i  xzj  xyk

The expression in the bracket is known as a vector

differential operator. It is very much important in
vector calculus and it is derived by a special symbol 
(pronounced ‘del’) so that
   
 i j k (3.2)
x y z

  
 grad  i j k (3.3)
x y z
Note: , as it is used above, must always be applied
to a scalar function.
Now suppose we can have dr, an infinitesimal vector
displacement such that
dr dx dy
i  j  k
dz (3.4)
dt dt dt dt
Where t is some parameter.
Then, dr       dx dy dt 
 
 .  i  j  k .
  i  j  k 
dt  x y z   t t t 

d  dx  dy  dz
  
dt x dt y dt z dt
(3.5)

Where
  x, y, z  is the total differential coefficient of
w.r.t. t.
 3.2 Operations with the operator 

If 1, and 2 are the differentiable scalar functions

in R then following operations held for  :
(i) ( 1 +2) = 1 +2
(ii) ( 1 2) = 12 + 21
(iii) (C 2) = C 2, C is an arbitrary constant.
Using the  operator, it is possible to define
other quantities. E.g, we defined 2 (del –
squared-) as the scalar product of vectors.
       d  d d 
2 =.  =  i  j  k .
  i  j  k 
 x y z   x y z 
 2 2 2 
 2  2  2 
 x y z 
(3.6)
Which is just the 3- dimensional laplacian. So
that Laplace’s equation in 3 – dimensions may
be written in the abbreviation
2
 0 form as

  2
 2
 2

(3.7) 2
  2  2  2 
 x y z 
Where

(3.8)
 Also the operation  (del dot) may be applied
to any vector function F(x, y, z) to give the
divergence of F(x,y,z) (written as div F).
So,
  
.F divF (i j  k ).(iFx  jFy  kFz )
x y z

Fx Fy Fz

  k
x y z
(3.9)

Where Fx , Fy, and Fz are functions of x,y, and z.

 Example 3.2: If F = ix2y + jy2z + kz2x
.F div F 2 xy  2 yz  2 zx
Then
2( xy  yz  zx ).
Thus it can be seen that the quantity 2 defined
in equation (3.5) and (3.6) above can be written
symbolically as
2 = . = div grad  (3.7)
Besides, the operator  can also be applied to a
vector product. The operation is  on F(x,y,z).
The vector product,  F defines the curl of F
(written as curl F) and is such that
 F = curl F (i   j   k  ) (iF  jF  kF )(3.8)
x y z
x y z
 i j k
  
 (3.9)
x y z
Fx Fy Fz
 Fz Fy   Fx Fz   Fy Fx 
i   z  j   k  
 y   z x   x y 

Curl F is therefore a vector function.

Example 3.3: If F (x, y, z) is a vector function defined
by
F = ix2y + jy2z + kz2x
: curl F = i(-y2) + j(-z2) + k(-x2)
 3.3 Operations in Vector Fields
The following operations are valid for both the div and
Curl of vector function F and G
(i) div (F + G) = div F + div G
Or
. (F + G) = .F + .G (3.10)
(ii) Curl (F + G) = Curl F + Curl G
Or
(F+G) = F + G (3.11)
Since Curl F is a vector, let us consider the result of
taking its divergence i.e.
. (F) = div curl F
   
x y z
  
 0
x y z
Fx Fy Fz

Since two rows of the determinant are identical

consequently,
.(F) = div Curl F = 0 for all F (3.12)
Conversely if G is a vector function such that div G = 0, then
we may infer that G is the Curl of some vector function F.
Vector functions whose divergences are identically zero are
said to be SOLENOIDAL.
Likewise since grad  is a vector function we may consider
the result of taking its curl:
 = Curl grad 
  = Curl grad 
         
 i  j  k    i j k 
 x y z   x y z 

i j k
  

x y z
  
x y z

 2 2   2 2   2 2 

i    j   k    0
 yz yz   xz xz   xy xy 
(3.13)
Hence for all 
 = 0
Again conversely we may infer that if G is a vector
function whose Curl is identically zero, then G must
be the gradient of some scalar function. Vector
Functions whose Curls are identically zero are said
to be Irrotational. We see from (3.13) that if F is an
irrotational vector function (Curl F = 0), then
another irrotational vector is
F + grad
Where  is any scalar function. This follows since
Curl (F + grad) = Curl F + Curl grad = 0
(3.15)
From the above definitions, it is possible to obtain a
number of useful vector differential relations.
 3.4 VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL RELATIONS

If F and G are arbitrary vector functions and  is an

arbitrary scalar function and if differentiability of all
function assumed, then.
.(F) = (.F) + F.() (3.16)

(F) = (F) + ()F (3.17)

.(FG) = G. (F) – F.(G) (3.18)
(FG) = F(.G) – G(.F) + (G.)F – (F.)G (3.19)

(F.G) = (F.(G + (G.)F)) + F(G) + G(F)(3.20)

(F) = (.F) - 2F (3.21)
 Example 3.4: we can prove (3.19) from first principle. Consider the
x component of (FG), it is

   
F  G z  F  G y  FxG y  FyGx   FzG x  FxG z 
y y y (3.22) z
   
F  G z  F  G y  FxG y  FyGx   FzGx  FxGz 
y y y (3.23) z
Gx
Fx
We now add x

to the first group of terms and subtract from the 4th

group, likewise we add to the 2nd group of term and
substractF it
x
from the 3 rd
group. Likewise, we add
G
To the 2nd group of term and subtract from the third
x
x

group.
we write (3.23) as
 Gx Gy Gz   Fx Fy Fz 
Fx      Gx    
 x y z   x y z 
         
Fx  Gx  G y  Gz   Gx  Fx  G y  Fz 
 x y z   x y z 
(3.24) Fx .G  Gx.F  G. Fx   F .Gx

(3.25)

Similarly, the y and z components of (FG) may

be obtained from (3.25) by changing the suffix x
to y and z respectively. Hence multiplying these
three components by i, j, k respectively and
 Example 3.5: Obtain the gradient of the scalar function
r  ix where
 jy  kz
Let F(r) = rn

    
grad F (r ) F (r )  i j  k  .F (r )
 x y z 
F (r ) F (r ) F (r )
i j k
x y z
dF (r ) r dF (r ) r dF (r ) r
i . j . k .
dr x dr y dr z
dF (r )
 nr n  1
dr
So, F (r ) 
dF (r )  r
 i  j
r
 k
r 

dr  x y z 
 r r r 
n 1
nr  i j k  nr n 1
i  j  k 
 x y z 
nr n  2 . r  i  j  k 
i j k
nr n  2 rx ry rz nr n  2 [( y  z )i  ( z  x ) j  ( x  y )k ]
1 1 1
 3.5 Vector operations in Curvilinear
Coordinates.
We often use coordinates other than Cartesian coordinate.
Thus we may have to find the appropriate expression for the
gradient, divergence or curl operations.
For Cartesian coordinate x, y, z , we write:
x = x1, y = x2 , z=x3 (3.26)
For cylindrical (r, θ, z), we write:
x1 = r cosθ, x2 = rsinθ, z3= z (3.27)
Transformations in Equation (3.27) are used in problems
exhibiting cylindrical symmetry.
Similarly, the following transformations for Spherical
coordinate,(r, θ,∅) given by:
x1 = rcosθsin∅, x2 = rsinθsin∅, x3 = rcos∅ (3.28)
The above equations can be re written in the form:
x1= x1(q1,q2,q3), x2= x2(q1,q2,q3), x3= x3(q1,q2,q3)
(3.29)
So that for every point P assumed, its coordinate
are determined by a unique triple coordinates q1,
q2, q3 so that we can solve equation (3.29) in the
form q1= q1(x1, x2, x3), q2= q2(x1, x2, x3), q3= q3(x1, x2,
x3).
 3.5.1 Transformation of the Linear Element

Let us transform the square of the linear element

3
ds 2 dx12  dx22  dx32  dxi
(3.30) i 1

xi 3

By the chain rule, dxi  dq j

j 1 q j
3 3
 ds  dx  dxi .dxi
2 2
i
i 1 i 1
(3.31) 3  3 xi 3
xi 
   dq j .  dqk 
i 1  j 1 q j k 1 qk 
 ds 2 h12 .dq12  h22 .dq22  h32 .dq32
(3.32)
 2
3
 xi 
h  
1
2

i 1  q1 
2
3
 xi 
h  
2
2  (3.34)
i 1  q2 
2
3
 xi 
h  
2
3 
i 1  q3 
Example 3.6: For instance, in the q-notation, the cylindrical co-ordinate q1= r, q2= θ, q3 = z
x1 = q1cosq2, x2 =q1sinq2, x3 = q3

2 2 2 2
 xi   x1   x2   x3 
3
h1  
2
      
i 1  q1  q q
 1  1  1 q
(3.35) x1 x x
cos q2 , 2 sin q2 , 3 0
q1 q1 q1
h12 cos 2 q2  sin 2 q2  0 1
2 2 2 2
3
 x   x   x   x 
h12   i   1    2    3 
i 1  q2   q2   q2   q2 
x1 x x
 q1 sin q2 , 2 q1 cos q2 , 3 0
q2 q2 q2
h22 q12 sin 2 q2  q12 cos 2 q2  0

q12 sin 2 q2  cos 2 q2 q12 
2 2 2 2
3
 xi   x1   x2   x3 
h3  
2
      
i 1  q3   3   3   q3 
q q
 x1 x x
0, 2 0, 3 1
q3 q3 q3
(3.41)
 h32 1

Consequently, ds 2 h12 dq12  h22 dq22  h32 dq32

2 2 2 2 2
 ds dq  q dq  dq
1 1 2 3

dr 2  r 2 d 2  dz 2
 Example 3.7: Linear element in spherical
coordinates
In spherical coordinates, its coordinates
represented by q1= r, q2 = θ,q3 = ∅ are defined by:
x1 =q1cosq2sin q3, x2 =q1sinq2sinq3, x3 =q1cosq3
h12 cos 2 q2 sin 2 q3  sin 2 q2 sin 2 q3  cos 2 q3
sin 2 q3 (cos 2 q2  sin 2 q2 )  cos 2 q3
sin 2 q3  cos 2 q3 1
h22 q12 sin 2 q2 sin 2 q3  q12 cos 2 q2 sin 2 q3  0
q12 sin 2 q3 (sin 2 q2  cos 2 q2 ) q12 sin 2 q3
h32 q12 cos 2 q2 cos 2 q3  q12 sin 2 q2 sin 2 q3  q12 sin 2 q3
q12 [cos 2 q3 (cos 2 q2  sin 2 q2 )  sin 2 q3 ]
q12
ds 2 dq12  q12 sin 2 q3 dq22  q12 dq32
dr 2  r 2 sin 2  d 2  r 2 d 2