A Short History of Computing

Tim Bergin
Computing History Museum
American University
Ancient History
Abacus

• 3000 BCE, early

form of beads on
wires, used in
China
• From semitic
abaq, meaning
dust.
 Table Abacus
100,000 -------------------------------------
50,000 ---------------------------------------
10,000 -------- --- -----------------------
5,000 ---------------------------------------
1,000 -------------------------------------
500 -----------------------------------------
100 ----------------------------------
50 -------- -------------------------------
10 ------------------------------------------
5 ------------------------------------------
1 ---------------------------------------
Chinese Swan Pan
The Middle Ages
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
 Charles Babbage (1791-1871)

• Born: December 26, 1791

• son of Benjamin Babbage a London
banker
(part of the emerging middle class:
property, education, wealth, and status)
• Trinity College, Cambridge [MA, 1817]
with John Herschel and George Peacock,
produced a translation of LaCroix’s
calculus text.
A vision of calculating by
steam!
My friend Herschel, calling upon
me, brought with him the
calculations of the computers,
and we commenced the
tedious process of
verification. After a time
many discrepancies occurred,
and at one point these
discordances were so
numerous that I exclaimed, “I
wish to God these
calculations had been
executed by steam.” 1821
Never to be completed
• December 1830,
a dispute with his
chief engineer,
Joseph Clement,
over control of
the project, ends
work on the
difference engine
• Clement is
allowed to keep
 Importance of the Difference
Engine

• 1. First attempt to devise a computing

machine that was automatic in action and
well adapted, by its printing mechanism,
to a mathematical task of considerable
importance.
• 2. An example of government
subsidization of innovation and
technology development
• 3. Spin offs to the machine-tool “industry”
Science Museum’s Reconstruction
• Difference Engine Number 2 (1847 to
1849) constructed according to
Babbage’s original drawings (minor
modifications)
• 1991 Bicentenary Celebration
• 4,000 parts
• 7 feet high, 11 feet long, 18 inches deep
• 500,000 pounds
Science Museum Recreation 1991
(Doron Swade, Curator)
Analytical Engine
Ada Augusta Byron, 1815-1852

• born on 10 December
1815.
• named after Byron's half
sister, Augusta, who had
been his mistress.
• After Byron had left for
the Continent with a
parting shot -- 'When
shall we three meet
 Ada Augusta Byron,
Countess of Lovelace
• Translated Menebrea’s paper into English
• Taylor’s: “The editorial notes are by the
translator, the Countess of Lovelace.”
• Footnotes enhance the text and provide
examples of how the Analytical Engine
could be used, i.e., how it would be
programmed to solve problems!
• Myth: “world’s first programmer”
Herman Hollerith and the
Evolution of Electronic
Accounting Machines
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
 Herman Hollerith
• Born: February 29, 1860
– Civil War: 1861-1865
• Columbia School of Mines (New York)
• 1879 hired at Census Office
• 1882 MIT faculty (T is for technology!)
• 1883 St. Louis (inventor)
• 1884 Patent Office (Wash, DC)
• 1885 “Expert and Solicitor of Patents”
 Census

• Article I, Section 2: Representatives

and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
among the several states...according to
their respective numbers...(and)
every ...term of ten years
• 1790: 1st US census
• Population: 3,929,214
• Census Office
 Population Growth:

• 1790 4 million
• 1840 17 million
• 1870 40 million
• 1880 50 million
fear of not being able to enumerate
the census in the 10 intervening years
• 1890 63 million
Smithsonian Exhibit (old)
 Computing Tabulating
Recording Company,(C-T-R)

• 1911: Charles Flint

– Computing Scale
Company (Dayton, OH)
– Tabulating Machine
Company, and
– International Time
Recording Company
(Binghamton, NY)
• Thomas J. Watson
(1874-1956)
hired as first president

• In1924, Watson
renames CTR as
International
Business Machines
 Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer

• 1st large scale electronic digital

computer
• designed and constructed at the
Moore School of Electrical Engineering
of the University of Pennsylvania
– since 1920s, faculty had worked with
Aberdeen Proving Ground’s Ballistics
Research Laboratory (BRL)
 Inspiration and Perspiration
Unite
• 1943 Mauchly and Eckert prepare a
proposal for the US Army to build an
Electronic Numerical Integrator
– calculate a trajectory in 1 second
• May 31, 1943 Construction of ENIAC starts
• 1944 early thoughts on stored program
computers by members of the ENIAC team
• July 1944 two accumulators working
Accumulator
(28 vacuum tubes)
 ENIAC at Moore School,
University of Pennsylvania
 Early Thoughts about
Stored Program Computing
• January 1944 Moore School team thinks of
better ways to do things; leverages delay line
memories from War research
• September 1944 John von Neumann visits
– Goldstine’s meeting at Aberdeen Train Station
• October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC
contract to include research on the EDVAC
and the stored-program concept
• Spring 1945 ENIAC working well
• June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the
EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer
 First Draft Report (June 1945)
• John von Neumann prepares (?) a report on
the EDVAC which identifies how the machine
could be programmed (unfinished very rough
draft)
– academic: publish for the good of science
– engineers: patents, patents, patents
• von Neumann never repudiates the myth that
he wrote it; most members of the ENIAC team
ontribute ideas
British Efforts
Manchester Mark I (1948)
 Manchester Mark I (1948)

• Freddy Williams and Tom Kilburn

• Developed an electrostatic memory
• Prototype operational June 21, 1948 and
machine to execute a stored program
• Memory: 32 words of 32 bits each
• Storage: single Williams tube (CRT)
• Fully operational: October 1949
• Ferranti Mark I delivered in February 1951
 EDSAC

• Maurice Wilkes, University Mathematical

Laboratory, Cambridge University
• Moore School Lectures
• Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator, EDSAC operational May, 1949
• J. Lyons Company and the LEO, Lyons
Electronic Office, operational fall 1951
 National Physical Laboratory

• Alan Turing
• Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)
• Basic design by spring, 1946
• Harry Huskey joins project
• Pilot ACE working, May 10, 1950
• English Electric: DEUCE, 1954
• Full version of ACE at NPL, 1959
 Alan Turing (1912-1954)

• On Computable
Numbers with an
application to the
Entscheidungs-
problem
• Code breaker
Mainframe Computers
 John Mauchly leaning on the
UNIVersal Automatic Computer
 Remington Rand UNIVAC
• 43 UNIVACs were delivered to
government and industry
• Memory: mercury delay lines: 1000
words of 12 alphanumeric characters
• Secondary storage: metal oxide tape
• Access time: 222 microseconds
(average)
• Instruction set: 45 operation codes
• Accumulators: 4
• Clock: 2.25 Mhz
IBM 701 (Defense Calculator)
• Addition time: 60 microseconds
• Multiplication: 456 microseconds
• Memory: 2048 (36 bit) words using
Williams tubes
• Secondary memory:
– Magnetic drum: 8192 words
– Magnetic tape: plastic
• Delivered: December 1952: IBM
World Headquarters (total of 19
installed)
 Second Generation (1958-1964)
• 1958 Philco introduces TRANSAC S-2000
– first transistorized commercial machine
• IBM 7070, 7074 (1960), 7072(1961)
• 1959 IBM 7090, 7040 (1961), 7094 (1962)
• 1959 IBM 1401, 1410 (1960), 1440 (1962)
• FORTRAN, ALGOL, and COBOL are first
standardized programming languages
 Third Generation (1964-1971)

• April 1964 IBM announces the System/360

– solid logic technology (integrated circuits)
– family of “compatible” computers
• 1964 Control Data delivers the CDC 6600
• nanoseconds
• telecommunications
• BASIC, Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code
 Fourth Generation (1971- )

• Large scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI)

• Nanoseconds and picoseconds
• Databases (large)
• Structured languages (Pascal)
• Structured techniques
• Business packages
Digital Equipment Corporation

(Mini-computers)
Assabet Mills, Maynard, MA
Flipchip
PDP-8, first mass-produced Mini
PDP-11 (1970)
Microcomputers
 Intel
• Noyce, Moore, and Andrew Grove leave
Fairchild and found Intel in 1968
– focus on random access memory (RAM) chips
• Question: if you can put transistors,
capacitors, etc. on a chip, why couldn’t
you put a central processor on a chip?
• Ted Hoff designs the Intel 4004, the first
microprocessor in 1969
– based on Digital’s PDP-8
 Microcomputers
• Ed Roberts founds Micro Instrumentation
Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1968
• Popular Electronics puts the MITS Altair
on the cover in January 1975 [Intel 8080]
• Les Solomon’s 12 year old daughter,
Lauren, was a lover of Star Trek. He
asked her what the name of the computer
on the Enterprise was. She said “
‘computer’ but why don’t you call it Altair
because that is where they are going
tonight!”
Altair 8800 Computer
 Intel processors
• CPU Year Data Memory MIPS
• 4004 1971 4 1K
• 8008 1972 8 16K
• 8080 1974 8 64K
• 8088 1980 8 1M .33
• 80286 1982 16 1M 3
• 80386 1985 32 4G 11
• 80486 1989 32 4G 41
• Pentium1993 64 4G 111