Introduction to

Computer Architecture
(24CSE107)
M. Sankara Prasanna Kumar, B. Tech., M. Tech., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, Department of AIDE
JAIN Deemed-to-be University, Global Campus
Exp: 17+ Years in Industry(2), Academia(15)
Module 1

Fundamentals and Basics:

CPU, Memory, Input-Output Subsystems, Control Unit, Functional units, Basic

operational concepts, Bus structures, Software, Performance, Multiprocessors and

Multi-Computers. Encoders, Demultiplexers, Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs),

Digital Logic Circuits: Basic Logic Functions, Synthesis of Logic Functions Using

AND, OR, and NOT Gates, Minimization of Logic Expression, Synthesis with NAND

and NOR Gates, Flip-Flops, Encoders, Demultiplexers.

 Computer Architecture
• Computer architecture refers to the design of the internal workings of a computer system,
including the CPU, memory, and other hardware components.
• It involves the logical functions such as Instruction sets, Data types, Registers and Addressing
modes.
• Computer architecture is concerned with optimizing the performance of a computer system
and ensuring that it can execute instructions quickly and efficiently.
• Computer Architecture is also called Instruction Set Architecture (ISA).
Functional Units of a Computer
Input Unit
• Computers accept coded information through input units.
• The most common input device is the keyboard.
• When we give the input the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code and transmitted to the processor.
• Human-computer interaction are available, including the touchpad, mouse, joystick, and
trackball.
• Graphic input devices in conjunction with displays.
• Microphones can be used to capture audio input which is then sampled and converted into
digital codes for storage and processing.
• Cameras can be used to capture video input.
• Digital communication facilities, such as the Internet, can also provide input to a computer from
other computers and database servers.
Memory Unit
• The function of the memory unit is to store programs and data.

• There are two classes of storage, called primary and secondary.

• Primary Memory Primary memory, also called main memory, is a fast memory that operates at
electronic speeds.

• The number of bits in each word is referred to as the word length of the computer, typically 16,
32, or 64 bits.

• A memory in which any location can be accessed in a short and fixed amount of time after
specifying its address is called a random-access memory (RAM).

• The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. (MAT)

• This time is independent of the location of the word being accessed. It typically ranges from a
few nanoseconds (ns) to about 100 ns for current RAM units
Cache memory

• Smaller, faster RAM unit, called a cache, is stored between CPU and main memory.

• The cache is tightly coupled with the processor and is usually contained on the same
integrated-circuit chip.

• The purpose of the cache is to facilitate high instruction execution rates at faster execution
rates.

• At the start of program execution, the cache is empty.

• As execution proceeds, instructions are fetched into the processor chip, and a copy of each is
placed in the cache.

• When the execution of an instruction requires data, located in the main memory, the data are
fetched and copies are also placed in the cache.
Secondary Storage

• Secondary Storage are additional, less expensive is used to store large amounts of data .

• Access times for secondary storage are longer than for primary memory.

• The devices available are including magnetic disks, optical disks (DVD and CD), and flash
memory devices.
Output Unit

• Output unit function is to send processed results to the outside world.

• A familiar example of such a device is a printer.

• laser printers, or ink jet streams. Such printers may generate output at speeds of 20 or more pages
per minute.

• Graphic displays provide both an output function showing text and graphics and an input
function, through touchscreen capability.
Summarisation of Operations of a Computer
• The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows:
• The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and
stores it in the memory.
• Information stored in the memory is fetched and send to arithmetic and logic unit where it is
processed.
• Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit.
• All activities in the computer are directed by the control unit.
Basic operational Concepts
Types of special purpose Register

• PC (program Counter)  Keep track of the program which are being executed.

• It contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.

• IR (Instruction Register)contains of the instructions which is currently being executed.

• MAR(Memory Address Register) Address of the location from the memory.

• MDR(Memory Data Register) Data which is read from the main memory.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU)

• Computer operations are executed in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of the processor.

• Arithmetic operations Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division.

• Logical Operations AND,OR,NOT

• When operands are brought into the processor, operations are stored in high-speed storage
elements called registers.

• Each register can store one word of data.

• Access times to registers are even shorter than cache unit on the processor chip.
Control Unit

• The control unit controls and coordinate all the activities that sends control signals to other
units.

• Memory, arithmetic and logic, and I/O units store and process information and perform input
and output operations.

• Control units are responsible for generating the timing signals that govern the transfers.

• Data transfers between the processor and the memory are also managed by the control unit
through timing signals.

• A large set of control lines carries the signals used for timing and synchronization of events in
all units.
Registers

• Register serves as a quick memory for accepting, storing, and sending data and instructions to
the CPU .

• A register is a collection of flip-flops, Single bit digital data is stored using flip-flops.

• A flip-flop is a sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable states that can be used to
store one bit of binary data. Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of all memory
devices.

• By combining many flip-flops, the storage capacity can be extended to accommodate a huge
number of bits.
Operations performed in registers

• Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used to retrieve user-provided instructions that have been stored
in the main memory. Registers are used to fetch these instructions.

• Decode: The Decode Operation is used to interpret the Instructions, which means that the CPU
will determine which operation has to be carried out on the instructions after the Instructions
have been decoded.

• Execute: The CPU manages the execute operation. The results that the CPU generates are then
stored in the memory before being presented on the user screen.
Types of Registers

• Types of Registers:

• Status and control registers.

• General-purpose data registers.

• Special purpose register.

Status and control register

• Status and control register report and allow the modification of the state of the processor and
of the program to be executed.
• Instruction Format: Address 0-11 bits & Opcode 12-14 bits & 14-15 bits
General-Purpose Data Registers

• General-Purpose Data Registers:

• General purpose registers are extra registers that are present in the CPU and are utilized anytime
data or a memory location is required.

• They are used to store the data temporarily.

• Mange the operands for logical and arithmetic operations

• Operands for address calculation

• Memory pointers
BUS Structure

• The bus is a communication channel.

• The characteristic of the bus is shared transmission media.

• The limitation of a bus is only one transmission at a time.

• A bus used to communicate between the major components of a computer is called a System bus.
Block Diagram of Bus Structure
Categories of Bus Structure

System bus contains 3 categories of lines used to provide the communication between the CPU,
memory and IO named as:
1. Address lines (AL) 2. Data lines (DL) 3. Control lines (CL)
1. Address Lines:

•Used to carry the address to memory and IO.

•Unidirectional.

• Based on the width of an address bus we can determine the capacity of a main memory
Data Lines

• 2. Data Lines:

• Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.

• Bidirectional.

• Based on the width of a data bus can determine the word length of a CPU.

• Based on the word length can determine the performance of a CPU.

Control Lines

• 3. Control Lines:

• Used to carry the control signals and timing signals

• Control signals indicate the type of operation.

• Timing Signals are used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with a CPU clock.

• Typical Control Lines may include Memory Read/Write, IO Read/Write, Bus Request/Grant,
etc.
Performance
• Performance refers to the speed and efficiency at which a computer system can execute tasks and
process data.
1. Processor speed: The speed of the processor, measured in GHz (gigahertz), determines how quickly
the computer can execute instructions and process data.
2. Memory: The amount and speed of the memory, including RAM (random access memory) and
cache memory, can impact how quickly data can be accessed and processed by the computer.
3. Storage: The speed and capacity of the storage devices, including hard drives and solid-state
drives (SSDs), can impact the speed at which data can be stored and retrieved.
4. I/O devices: The speed and efficiency of input/output devices, such as keyboards, mice, and
displays, can impact the overall performance of the system.
5. Software optimization: The efficiency of the software running on the system, including operating
systems and applications, can impact how quickly tasks can be completed.
Factor for improving Performance

• Reducing Time Complexity.

• Upgrading Hardware Components

• Optimizing Software

• Addressing Bottlenecks in the system.

Multi Processor

• 1. Multiprocessor:
A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central processing units (CPUs) share
full access to a common RAM.

• The main objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost the system’s execution speed, with other
objectives being fault tolerance and application matching.

• There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called shared memory multiprocessor and
another is distributed memory multiprocessor.

• In shared memory multiprocessors, all the CPUs shares the common memory but in a
distributed memory multiprocessor, every CPU has its own private memory.
Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors

X
Multi Processor
Applications of Multi Processor

1. As a uniprocessor, such as single instruction, single data stream (SISD).

2. As a multiprocessor, such as single instruction, multiple data stream (SIMD), which is usually
used for vector processing.

3. Multiple series of instructions in a single perspective, such as multiple instruction, single data
stream (MISD), which is used for describing hyper-threading or pipelined processors.

4. Inside a single system for executing multiple, individual series of instructions in multiple
perspectives, such as multiple instruction, multiple data stream (MIMD).
Multi Computer

• It is a computer system with multiple processors that are connected together to solve a
problem.

• Each processor has its own memory and it is accessible by that particular processor and those
processors can communicate with each other via an interconnection network.

• As the multicomputer is capable of messages passing between the processors, it is possible to

divide the task between the processors to complete the task.

• Hence, a multicomputer can be used for distributed computing activities.

• It is cost effective and easier to build a multicomputer than a multiprocessor.

Multicomputer
Encoder
• An encoder is a digital circuit that converts a set of binary inputs into a unique binary code.
• The binary code represents the position of the input and is used to identify the specific input
that is active.
• Encoders are commonly used in digital systems to convert a parallel set of inputs into a serial
code.
• An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of Decoder.
• It has maximum of 2^n input lines and ‘n’ output lines, hence it encodes the information from
2^n inputs into an n-bit code. It will produce a binary code equivalent to the input, which is active
High.
• Therefore, the encoder encodes 2^n input lines with ‘n’ bits.
4:2 Encoder
• 4 : 2 Encoder
• The 4 to 2 Encoder consists of four inputs Y3, Y2, Y1 & Y0 and two outputs A1 & A0. At any
time, only one of these 4 inputs can be ‘1’ in order to get the respective binary code at the output.
The figure below shows the logic symbol of 4 to 2 encoder :
Truth Table
• 4:2 Encoder
Implementation
• Logical Expression for A0 and A1
• A1=Y3+Y2
• A0=Y3+Y1
8 : 3 Encoder (Octal to Binary)
• 8 : 3 Encoder (Octal to Binary)
• The 8 to 3 Encoder or octal to Binary encoder consists of 8 inputs : Y7 to Y0 and 3 outputs : A2,
A1 & A0. Each input line corresponds to each octal digit and three outputs generate corresponding
binary code. The figure below shows the logic symbol of octal to binary encoder:
TRUTH TABLE
• D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 X Y Z

• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

• 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

• 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

• 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

• 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

• 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

• 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

• 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Implementation
Decoder
• The combinational circuit that change the binary information into 2N output lines is known
as Decoders.
• The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines. The output lines define the 2N-bit
code for the binary information
• In simple words, the Decoder performs the reverse operation of the Encoder.
• At a time, only one input line is activated for simplicity. The produced 2N-bit output code is
equivalent to the binary information.
8:3 Decoder
TRUTH TABLE
De-Multiplexers

• A De-multiplexer (De-Mux) can be described as a combinational circuit that performs the reverse
operation of a Multiplexer.
• A De-multiplexer has a single input, 'n' selection lines and a maximum of 2^n outputs.
• The following image shows the block diagram of a 1 * 4 De-multiplexer.
Function Table 4*1
Circuit Diagram
Implementation of 3AND and 1 OR
Programmable Logic Array(PLA)
• Programmable Logic Array(PLA) is a fixed architecture logic device with programmable AND
gates followed by programmable OR gates.
• Basic block diagram for PLA:
Truth Table
• F1 = AB’C’ + ABC’ + ABC
on simplifying we get : F1 = AB + AC
• F2 = A’BC + AB’C + ABC
on simplifying we get: F2 = BC + AC
Circuit Diagram
Digital Logic Circuits

• Digital logic circuits are the basis of digital systems. These logic circuits are a set of logic gates
that show logical equivalence between two different groups of binary numbers.

• These digital logic circuits use 1 and 0 for on/off conditions, where 1 represents on, and 0
represents off conditions.

• Digital Logic Circuits are digital devices that use logic gates, ALU’s, microprocessors, RAM,
ROM to control other circuits. It is a specific form of logic circuit that processes the numerical
values 0 and 1.
Logic Circuits
• Digital circuits are also called logical circuits because they perform logical operations on digital
signals. Digital circuits use logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR to perform the
required digital operations.
• A digital circuit is a circuit containing digital logic. Digital circuits are the most common physical
implementation of Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic and are the basis of all modern
computers.
• It is because digital circuits are mainly used to process data that has only two values, such as true
or false.
• In other words, it can be said that a digital circuit’s primary function is to process the information
that manages the binary system. Digital circuits are called logical circuits because they perform
logical operations and produce results that can be interpreted as True or False.
Types of Digital Logic Circuits:

• 1. Synchronous Systems:
• Synchronous systems include clocks, our circadian rhythms, and periodic phenomena such as tides and waves.
In electronics, an synchronous system is a system in which the temporal behaviour of di fferent elements is
related to each other. The timing of events in Synchronous systems depends on the signals clock.
• 2. Asynchronous Systems:
• Asynchronous systems send out messages and perform operations in parallel without the need to wait for a
response. This means that different processes can co-occur; that is, multiple functions can be running
simultaneously.
• 3. Combinational Logic Circuits:
• Combinational logic is a form of digital logic in which an input pattern is applied to a circuit, and the output
pattern depends only on this input pattern. Logic gates are undoubtedly one of the most basic and essential
building blocks of digital circuits.
• 4. Sequential Networks:
• The sequence network is a type of balance equivalent network that is used for the balance power system.
Invest and imagined working condition is set so that only one sequence component can be present in the voltage
and current.
Basics of Logic Gates
• Logic gates are used to carry out logical operations on single or multiple binary inputs and give
one binary output. In simple terms, logic gates are the electronic circuits in a digital system.
• Types of Basic Logic Gates
• There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The common
ones are
• OR Gate
• AND Gate
• NOT Gate
• XOR Gate
• Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore, we get other
gates, such as NAND Gate, NOR Gate, and EXNOR Gate.
OR GATE
• OR Gate
• In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more inputs attain state 1.

The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B.

The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as

A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
AND GATE
• AND Gate

• In the AND gate, the output of an AND gate attains state 1 if and only if all the
inputs are in state 1. The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B

• The truth table of a two-input AND basic gate is given as

A B Y A B Y

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 0
NOT GATE
• NOT Gate
• In a NOT gate, the output of a NOT gate attains state 1 if and only if the input does not attain state
1.
• The Boolean expression is
Y=A
• It is read as Y equals NOT A.
• The truth table of NOT gate is as follows

A Y

0 1

1 0
NAND GATE
• NAND Gate
• This basic logic gate is the combination of AND and NOT gates.
• The Boolean expression of the NAND gate is
• Y=A.B
• The truth table of a NAND gate is given as

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR GATE
• NOR Gate
• This gate is the combination of OR and NOT gates.
• The Boolean expression of the NOR gate is

• Y=A+B

• The truth table of a NOR gate is as follows

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Exclusive-OR gate (XOR Gate)

• Exclusive-OR gate (XOR Gate)

• In an XOR gate, the output of a two-input XOR gate attains state 1 if one adds only input and
attains state 1.
• The Boolean Expression for XOR gate is

• A.B+A.B or Y=A + B

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
Synthesis of digital circuits
• Synthesis is the process of generating a circuit that realizes a functional behavior of a
logic system from a given description (stated in form of verbal statements, truth table,
K-map, state diagram, etc.)
• Example: Synthesize a logic function that realizes the following truth table. Use AND,
OR, and NOT gates

X1 X2 F(X1,X2)

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 1
Synthesis of Digital Circuits
• Two implementations of a function

•
Synthesis of Digital Circuits
Row F(X1,X2,
X1 X2 X3
Number X3)

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1

2 0 1 0 0

3 0 1 1 0

4 1 0 0 1

5 1 0 1 1

6 1 1 0 1

7 1 1 1 0
Synthesis of Digital Circuits
Minimization of Logic EXPRESSIONS
• K-map can take two forms Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS)
according to the need of problem. K-map is table like representation but it
gives more information than TRUTH TABLE. We fill grid of K-map with 0’s and
1’s then solve it by making groups.
• Steps to solve expression using K-map-
1.Select K-map according to the number of variables.
2.Identify minterms or maxterms as given in problem.
3.For SOP put 1’s in blocks of K-map respective to the minterms (0’s elsewhere).
4.For POS put 0’s in blocks of K-map respective to the maxterms(1’s elsewhere).
5.Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of two like 2,4,8 ..
(except 1) and try to cover as many elements as you can in one group.
6.From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and sum them up for
SOP form.
 SOP Form K-Map for 3 variable

Z=
∑A,B,C(1,3,6,7)
 SOP Form K-Map for 4 Variable

F(P,Q,R,S)=∑(0,2,5,7,8,10,13,
15)
 POS FORM K-Map for 3 variable

F(A,B,C)=π(0,3,6,7)
 POS FORM K-Map for 4 variable

F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,
13)
Flip Flop

• Flip-flop is a circuit that maintains a state until directed by input to change the
state. A basic flip-flop can be constructed using four-NAND or four-NOR
gates. Types of flip-flops:

1.SR Flip Flop

2.JK Flip Flop

3.D Flip Flop

4.T Flip Flop

 SR Flip Flop
Flip Flop is a sequential circuit so its input is based upon two parameters, one is the current
input and other is the output from previous state. It has two outputs, both are complement of each
other. It may be in one of two stable states, either 0 or 1.

SR Flip Flop basic Block diagram

Working of SR Flip Flop
SR Flip Flop using NAND Gate
Case 1 : Let’s say, S=0 and R=0 , then output of both AND gates will be
0 and the value of Q and Q’ will be same as their previous
value, i.e, Hold state.
Case 2 : Let’s say, S=0 and R=1 , then output of both AND gates will be
1 and 0, correspondingly the value of Q will be 0 as one of
input is 1 and it is a NOR gate so it will ultimately gives 0,
(OR)
hence Q gets 0 value, similarly Q’ will be 1.
Case 3 : Let’s say, S=1 and R=0 , then output of both AND gates will be
0 and 1, correspondingly the value of Q’ will be 0 as one of
input to NOR gate is 1, so output will be 0 ultimately and this
0 value will go as input to upper NOR gate, and hence Q will
become 1.
SR Flip Fop using two NOR and two AND Gates
Case 4 : Let’s say, S=1 and R=1 , then output of both AND gates will be
1 and 1 which is invalid, as the outputs should be complement
of each other.
Characteristics Equation for SR Flip Flop: QN+1 = QNR’ + SR’
JK FLIP FLOP
It is one kind of sequential logic circuit which stores binary information in bitwise manner. It consists of
two inputs and two outputs. Inputs are Set(J) & Reset(K) and their corresponding outputs are Q and Q’.
JK flipflop has two modes of operation which are synchronous mode and asynchronous mode. In
synchronous mode, the state will be changed with the clock(clk) signal, and in asynchronous mode, the
change of state is independent from its clock signal.
Working of SR Flip Flop
Case 1 : J = 0, K = 0 (No Change): Here, the output Q(n+1) stays the same. This means the next state (Q(n+1)) is just like
the current one (Qn).
Case 2 : J = 0, K = 1 (Reset State): In this case, the next state is reset to 0 (Q(n+1) = 0), no matter what the current state is
(Qn).
Case 3 : J = 1, K = 0 (Set State): Now, the next state gets set to 1 (Q(n+1) = 1), again, no matter what’s happening in the
current state (Qn).
Case 4 : J = 1, K = 1 (Toggle State): In this state, the output Q(n+1) toggles. So if the current state is set (Qn = 1), it will
change to 0 (Q(n+1) = 0). If it’s reset (Qn = 0), then it flips to 1 (Q(n+1) = 1).
Characteristics Equation for JK Flip Flop: QN+1 = QNK’ + QN’J
D-Flip Flop
D flip flop is an electronic devices that is known as “delay flip flop” or “data flip flop” which is used to store single bit
of data. D flip flops are synchronous or asynchronous. The clock single required for the synchronous version of D flip
flops but not for the asynchronous one.
Working of D Flip Flop
1. When the Qn is 0 and the Dn is also 0, then the Qn+1 becomes 0. This situation explains the condition of “hold”
state.
2. When the Qn is 0 but Dn is 1, then the Qn+1 becomes 1. This situation explains the condition of “reset” state.
3. When the Qn is 1 but Dn is 0, then the Qn+1 becomes 0. This situation explains the condition of “hold” state.
4. When the Qn is 1 and the Dn is also 1, then the Qn+1 becomes 1. This situation explains the condition of “reset”
state.
Characteristics Equation for D Flip Flop: QN+1 = D
 T FLIP FLOP

The "T Flip Flop" is designed by passing the AND gate's output as input
to the NOR gate of the "SR Flip Flop".
The simplest construction of a D Flip Flop is with JK Flip Flop. Both the
inputs of the "JK Flip Flop" are connected as a single input T.

• Here, T is the Toggle input, Q is present state input, Qt+1

is the next state output.
• Whenever Toggle (T) is 0, next state output (Qt+1) is
same as current state input (Q).
• Whenever Toggle (T) is 1, next state output (Qt+1) will be
complement of current state input (Q) which means it gets
toggled.

Characteristics Equation for T Flip Flop: Q(n+1) = TQn’ + T’Qn = T XOR Qn

LOGIC GATES
Did You Know?

An encoder converts a set

of binary inputs into a
Registers are fast unique binary code.
Computer Memory
Summary

Outcomes:
a. Discuss the theory functionality and basic architecture of
CPU
b. Discuss the Design Issues on the basis of speed,
Technology, cost and performance.
c. Illustrate the different Logic Gates and Minimization of
Logic gates.
Terminal Questions
1) What are the different types of Logic Gates?
2) What is Encoders?
Reference Links

• https://www.geekforgeeks.org/computer organization
Reference Material:
• William Stallings "Computer Organization and Architecture”,6Th
Edition,Pearson/PHIISBN:10:0-13-609704-9
Thank you