DATABASE

MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
 DBMS
• A database management system (DBMS) defines,
creates, and maintains a database.

DBMS components
 DBMS components
• Hardware
– The physical computer system that allows physical access to
data
• Software
– The actual program that allows users to access, maintain,
and update physical data
• Data
– stored physically on the storage devices
• User
– include end users and application programs
• Procedure
– A set of procedures (rules) that should be clearly defined and
followed by the users of the database
ARCHITECTURE
Degrees of Data Abstraction
• Way of classifying data models
• Many processes begin at high level of
abstraction and proceed to an ever-
increasing level of detail
• Designing a usable database follows the
same basic process

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)
• American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Standards Planning and
Requirements Committee (SPARC)
–Defined a framework for data modeling
based on degrees of data
abstraction(1970s):
• External
• Conceptual
• Internal

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)

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The External Model
• End users’ view of the data environment
• Requires that the modeler subdivide set of
requirements and constraints into functional
modules that can be examined within the
framework of their external models

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The External Model (continued)
• Advantages:
– Easy to identify specific data required to support each
business unit’s operations
– Facilitates designer’s job by providing feedback about
the model’s adequacy
– Creation of external models helps to ensure security
constraints in the database design
– Simplifies application program development

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The External Model (continued)

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 The Conceptual Model

• Represents global view of the entire database

• Representation of data as viewed by the entire
organization
• Basis for identification and high-level
description of main data objects, avoiding
details
• Most widely used conceptual model is the entity
relationship (ER) model

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The Conceptual Model (continued)

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 The Conceptual Model (continued)

• Provides a relatively easily understood macro

level view of data environment
• Independent of both software and hardware
– Does not depend on the DBMS software used to
implement the model
– Does not depend on the hardware used in the
implementation of the model
– Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no
effect on the database design at the conceptual level

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The Internal Model
• Representation of the database as “seen”
by the DBMS
• Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS
• Internal schema depicts a specific
representation of an internal model

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The Internal Model (continued)

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The Physical Model
• Operates at lowest level of abstraction,
describing the way data are saved on
storage media such as disks or tapes
• Software and hardware dependent
• Requires that database designers have a
detailed knowledge of the hardware and
software used to implement database
design

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The Physical Model (continued)

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DATA MODELS
The Importance of Data Models
• Data models
– Relatively simple representations, usually
graphical, of complex real-world data structures
– Facilitate interaction among the designer, the
applications programmer, and the end user
– End-users have different views and needs for data
– Data model organizes data for various users

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Data Model Basic Building Blocks

• Entity - anything about which data are to be

collected and stored
• Attribute - a characteristic of an entity
• Relationship - describes an association among
entities
– One-to-many (1:M) relationship
– Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
– One-to-one (1:1) relationship
• Constraint - a restriction placed on the data

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Business Rules
• Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions of
a policies, procedures, or principles within a
specific organization
• Apply to any organization that stores and uses
data to generate information
• Description of operations that help to create
and enforce actions within that organization’s
environment

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Business Rules (continued)
• Must be rendered in writing
• Must be kept up to date
• Sometimes are external to the organization
• Must be easy to understand and widely
disseminated
• Describe characteristics of the data as
viewed by the company

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Discovering Business Rules
Sources of Business Rules:
• Company managers
• Policy makers
• Department managers
• Written documentation
– Procedures
– Standards
– Operations manuals
• Direct interviews with end users

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Translating Business Rules into Data
Model Components
• Standardize company’s view of data
• Constitute a communications tool between
users and designers
• Allow designer to understand the nature,
role, and scope of data
• Allow designer to understand business
processes
• Allow designer to develop appropriate
relationship participation rules and
constraints
• Promote creation of an accurate data model
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Discovering Business Rules (continued)
• Generally, nouns translate into entities
• Verbs translate into relationships among
entities
• Relationships are bi-directional

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The Evolution of Data Models
(continued)
• Hierarchical
• Network
• Relational
• Entity relationship
• Object oriented (OO)

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The Hierarchical Model
• Developed in the 1960s to manage large
amounts of data for complex manufacturing
projects
• Basic logical structure is represented by an
upside-down “tree”

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
The Hierarchical Model (continued)
• The hierarchical structure contains levels, or
segments
• Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M)
relationships between a parent and its
children segments
– Each parent can have many children
– each child has only one parent

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
• Advantages
– Many of the hierarchical data model’s features
formed the foundation for current data models
– Its database application advantages are replicated,
albeit in a different form, in current database
environments
– Generated a large installed (mainframe) base,
created a pool of programmers who developed
numerous tried-and-true business applications

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
• Disadvantages
– Complex to implement
– Difficult to manage
– Lacks structural independence
– Implementation limitations
– Lack of standards

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 The Network Model
• Created to
– Represent complex data relationships more effectively
– Improve database performance
– Impose a database standard
• Conference on Data Systems Languages
(CODASYL)
• Database Task Group (DBTG)

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 The Network Model (continued)

• Schema
– Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed
by the database administrator
• Subschema
– Defines database portion “seen” by the application
programs that actually produce the desired information
from data contained within the database
• Data Management Language (DML)
– Defines the environment in which data can be managed

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 The Network Model (continued)

• Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)

– Enables database administrator to define schema
components
• Subschema DDL
– Allows application programs to define database
components that will be used
• DML
– Works with the data in the database

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 The Network Model (continued)
• Resembles hierarchical model
• Collection of records in 1:M relationships
• Set
– Relationship
– Composed of at least two record types
• Owner
–Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
• Member
–Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child

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The Network Model (continued)

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The Network Model (continued)
• Disadvantages
– Too cumbersome
– The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy pressure
on programmers
– Any structural change in the database could produce
havoc in all application programs that drew data from
the database
– Many database old-timers can recall the interminable
information delays

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The Relational Model
• Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
• Considered ingenious but impractical in
1970
• Conceptually simple
• Computers lacked power to implement the
relational model
• Today, microcomputers can run
sophisticated relational database software

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The Relational Model (continued)
• Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS)
• Performs same basic functions provided by
hierarchical and network DBMS systems, in
addition to a host of other functions
• Most important advantage of the RDBMS is
its ability to hide the complexities of the
relational model from the user

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The Relational Model (continued)
• Table (relations)
– Matrix consisting of a series of row/column
intersections
– Related to each other through sharing a common
entity characteristic
• Relational diagram
– Representation of relational database’s entities,
attributes within those entities, and relationships
between those entities

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The Relational Model (continued)

• Relational Table
– Stores a collection of related entities
• Resembles a file
• Relational table is purely logical structure
– How data are physically stored in the database is of no
concern to the user or the designer
– This property became the source of a real database
revolution

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The Relational Model (continued)

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The Relational Model (continued)

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 The Relational Model (continued)

• Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful

and flexible query language
• Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the
user to specify what must be done without
specifying how it must be done
• SQL-based relational database application
involves:
– User interface
– A set of tables stored in the database
– SQL engine

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The Entity Relationship Model
• Widely accepted and adapted graphical
tool for data modeling
• Introduced by Chen in 1976
• Graphical representation of entities and
their relationships in a database structure

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 The Entity Relationship Model
(continued)
• Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
– Uses graphic representations to model database
components
– Entity is mapped to a relational table
• Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in
table
• Entity set is collection of like entities
• Connectivity labels types of relationships
– Diamond connected to related entities through a
relationship line

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

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The Object Oriented Model
• Modeled both data and their relationships in
a single structure known as an object
• Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the
basis for the object-oriented database
management system (OODBMS)
• OODM is said to be a semantic data model

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 The Object Oriented Model (continued)
• Object described by its factual content
– Like relational model’s entity
• Includes information about relationships
between facts within object, and relationships
with other objects
– Unlike relational model’s entity
• Subsequent OODM development allowed an
object to also contain all operations
• Object becomes basic building block for
autonomous structures

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 The Object Oriented Model (continued)
• Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
• Attributes describe the properties of an object
• Objects that share similar characteristics are
grouped in classes
• Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
• Inheritance is the ability of an object within the
class hierarchy to inherit the attributes and
methods of classes above it

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

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Other Models
• Extended Relational Data Model
(ERDM)
–Semantic data model developed in
response to increasing complexity of
applications
–DBMS based on the ERDM often described
as an object/relational database
management system (O/RDBMS)
–Primarily geared to business applications

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Other Models
• Distributed databases
–The data are stored on several computers
that communicate through the Internet.
• Fragmented distributed databases
• Replicated distributed databases
Database Models and the Internet
• Internet drastically changed role and scope
of database market
• OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a
backseat to development of databases that
interface with Internet
• Dominance of Web has resulted in growing
need to manage unstructured information

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Data Models: Summary
• Each new data model capitalized on the
shortcomings of previous models
• Common characteristics:
– Conceptual simplicity without compromising the
semantic completeness of the database
– Represent the real world as closely as possible
– Representation of real-world transformations
(behavior) must comply with consistency and
integrity characteristics of any data model

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Data Models: Summary (continued)

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Summary (continued)
• Hierarchical model
– Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M)
relationships between a parent and its children
segments
• Network data model
– Uses sets to represent 1:M relationships
between record types
• Relational model
– Current database implementation standard
– ER model is a popular graphical tool for data
modeling that complements the relational
model
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Summary (continued)
• Object is basic modeling structure of object
oriented data model
• The relational model has adopted many
object-oriented extensions to become the
extended relational data model (ERDM)
• Data modeling requirements are a function
of different data views (global vs. local) and
level of data abstraction

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