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CSE 205 - Chapter2

The document discusses Boolean (binary) logic, its operations, and the importance of Boolean algebra in simplifying circuit designs. It outlines the axiomatic definition of Boolean algebra, including its basic operations, theorems, and properties such as the duality principle and absorption property. Additionally, it covers the representation of Boolean functions, their complements, and gate implementations.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views56 pages

CSE 205 - Chapter2

The document discusses Boolean (binary) logic, its operations, and the importance of Boolean algebra in simplifying circuit designs. It outlines the axiomatic definition of Boolean algebra, including its basic operations, theorems, and properties such as the duality principle and absorption property. Additionally, it covers the representation of Boolean functions, their complements, and gate implementations.

Uploaded by

anisrahman2134
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CSE 205: DIGITAL LOGIC

DESIGN
BOOLEAN (BINARY) LOGIC
 Deals with binary variables and binary logic
functions
 Has two discrete values

 0, False, Open
 1, True, Close
 Three basic logical operations

 AND (.); OR (+); NOT (‘)

 We need to define algebra for binary values


 Boolean Algebra: Developed by George
Boole in 1854
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Why study Boolean Algebra?
 To find the simplest circuit implementation
with the smallest number of gates or wires.

 The simpler that we can make a Boolean


function, the smaller the circuit that will result.
 Simpler circuits are cheaper to build,
consume less power, and run faster than
complex circuits.

 With this in mind, we always want to reduce


our Boolean functions to their simplest form.
ALGEBRA

 What is an algebra?
 Mathematical system consisting of
 Set of elements

 Set of operators

 Axioms or postulates: facts that can be

taken as true; they do not require proof


AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 A Boolean algebra requires
A set of elements B, consisting of two elements
(0 and 1)
 Two binary operations OR and AND
 The axioms below must always be true

1. x +y  B x  yB Closure
2. x +0 =x x  1 =x I dentity
3. x +y =y +x x  y =y  x Commutativity
4. x(y +z) =xy +xz x +yz =(x +y)(x +z) Distributivity
5. x +x’ =1 x  x’ =0 Complement
6. At least 2 elements: x,y  B such that x  y Cardinality
AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 Based on axiom #5, we can develop a unary


(one-argument) operation NOT

x x’
0 1
1 0

6
AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 The distributive laws

x y z y+z x . (y+z) x.y x.z (x . y)+(x . z)


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

7
DUALITY PRINCIPLE
 If an expression is valid in Boolean algebra,
the dual of that expression is also valid.

 To form the dual of an expression, replace all +


operators with . operators, all . operators with
+ operators, all ones with zeros, and all zeros
with ones.
 Form the dual of the expression

a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)
 Following the replacement rules…

a(b + c) = ab + ac
DUALITY PRINCIPLE
 The left and right columns of axioms are
duals
 exchange all ANDs with ORs, and 0s with 1s

1. x +y  B x  yB Closure
2. x +0 =x x  1 =x I dentity
3. x +y =y +x x  y =y  x Commutativity
4. x(y +z) =xy +xz x +yz =(x +y)(x +z) Distributivity
5. x +x’ =1 x  x’ =0 Complement
6. At least 2 elements: x,y  B such that x  y Cardinality

9
BASIC THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
 In addition to the axioms, additional laws can be derived;
they are called theorems of Boolean Algebra
 These theorems are useful in performing algebraic
manipulations of Boolean expressions

1. x +x =x x  x =x I dempotency
2. x +1 =1 x  0 =0
3. yx +x =x (y +x)  x =x Absorption
4. (x’)’ =x I nvolution
5. x +(y +z) =(x +y) +z x(yz) =(xy)z Associative
6. (x +y)’ =x’y’ (xy)’ =x’ +y’ DeMorgan’s
PROOF OF X+X=X
 We can only use Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Huntington postulates:Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0

 Show that x+x=x.


x+x = (x+x)·1 by 2(b)
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a)
= x+xx’ by 4(b)
= x+0 by 5(b)
= x by 2(a)
 We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future
proofs
PROOF OF X·X=X
 Similar to previous Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
proof Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

 Show that x·x = x.


x·x = xx+0 by 2(a)
= xx+xx’ by 5(b)
= x(x+x’) by 4(a)
= x·1 by 5(a)
= x by 2(b)
PROOF OF X+1=1
 Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1 Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
x + 1 = 1 . (x + 1) by 2(b)
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
=(x + x')(x + 1) 5(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x + x' 1 Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1,
4(b) (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x, (b) x.x =x
= x + x' 2(b)
=1
 Theorem 2(b): x . 0 = 0 by duality
 Theorem 4: (x')' = x
 Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' =
1 and x x' = 0
 The complement of x' is x is also (x')'
ABSORPTION PROPERTY (COVERING)
Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
x + xy = x . 1 + xy by 2(b)
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= x (1 + y) 4(a) Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x (y + 1) 3(a) Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x, (b) x.x =x
= x.1 Th 2(a)
Th. 2: (a) x + 1 = 1, (b) x.0 =0
=x 2(b)

 Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality


 By means of truth table (another way to
proof )
ABSORPTION PROPERTY (COVERING)
Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x

x y xy x+xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
 Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
 Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
 By means of truth table

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y) x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’



0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
CONSENSUS THEOREM

AB + A'C + BC = AB + A'C

 The consensus or resolvent of the terms AB


and A'C is BC
 It is the conjunction of all the unique literals of
the terms, excluding the literal that appears
unnegated in one term and negated in the
other
CONSENSUS THEOREM
1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) --
(dual)
 Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy(1+z) + x’z (1+y)
= xy + x’z
BOOLEAN FUNCTION
 A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship
between binary variables and is evaluated by
determining the binary value of the expression for all
possible values of the variables.
f(x,y,z) = (x + y’)z + x’
 Some terminology, notation and precedence:
 f is the name of the function.
 (x,y,z) are the input variables, each representing 1
or 0.
 A literal is a single variable within a term, in
complemented or uncomplemented form. The
function above has four literals: x, y’, z, and x’.
 NOT has the highest precedence, followed by AND,
and then OR.
BOOLEAN FUNCTION
 A Boolean function can be represented in a
truth table.
f(x,y,z) = (x + y’)z
+ x’ x y z f (x,y,z)
0 0 0 1
f(0,0,0) = (0 + 1)0 + 1 = 1
0 0 1 1
f(0,0,1) = (0 + 1)1 + 1 = 1
f(0,1,0) = (0 + 0)0 + 1 = 1 0 1 0 1
f(0,1,1) = (0 + 0)1 + 1 = 1 0 1 1 1
f(1,0,0) = (1 + 1)0 + 0 = 0 1 0 0 0
f(1,0,1) = (1 + 1)1 + 0 = 1 1 0 1 1
f(1,1,0) = (1 + 0)0 + 0 = 0 1 1 0 0
f(1,1,1) = (1 + 0)1 + 0 = 1
1 1 1 1
COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
 The complement of a function always outputs
0 where the original function outputted 1, and
1 where the original produced 0.
f(x,y,z) = (x + y’)z
x y z f (x,y,z) + x’ x y z f ’ (x,y,z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
GATE IMPLEMENTATION OF A
FUNCTION
GATE IMPLEMENTATION OF A
FUNCTION
PRACTICE
 Simplify the following Boolean expressions to a
minimum number of literals:
 xyz + x'y + xyz’
 (A + B)'(A' + B') '

 xyz + x'y + xyz' = xy(z + z') + x'y = xy + x'y


=y

 (A + B)'(A' + B')' = (A'B')(A B) = (A'B')(BA) = 0


COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
 Applying DeMorgan’s theorems:

f(x,y,z) = x(y’z’ + yz)


f ’(x,y,z) = (x(y’z’ + yz))’ [ complement both sides ]
= x’ + (y’z’ + yz)’[ because (xy)’ = x’ + y’ ]
= x’ + (y’z’)’ (yz)’[ because (x + y)’ = x’ y’ ]
= x’ + (y + z)(y’ + z’) [ because (xy)’ = x’ + y’, twic
COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
 By taking the dual of f and complementing
each literal:

 If
f(x,y,z) = x(y’z’ + yz)…
 …the dual of f is x + (y’ + z’)(y + z)…
 …then complementing each literal gives

x’ + (y + z)(y’ + z’)…
 …so f’(x,y,z) = x’ + (y + z)(y’ + z’)
PRACTICE
 Find the complement of the following
expressions:
 xy' + x'y
 [(x' + y + z')(x + y')(x + z)]
 F' = (xy' + x'y)'

= (xy')'(x'y)'
= (x' + y)(x + y')
= xy + x'y‘
 F' = [(x' + y + z')(x + y')(x + z)]'

= (x' + y + z')' + (x + y')' + (x + z)'


= xy'z + x'y + x'z'
MINTERMS
 A minterm is an AND term in which every
variable or its complement in a function occurs
once.
 F(x,y) has 4 minterms x’y’, x’y, xy’, xy

 An n variable function has 2n valid minterms

 A minterm equals 1 at exactly one input


combination and is equal to 0 otherwise
 Example: x’y’z’ = 1 only when x=0, y=0,
z=0
MAXTERMS
 A maxterm is an OR term in which every
variable or its complement in a function occurs
once
 F(x,y) has 4 maxterms x’+y’, x’+y, x+y’,
x+y

 An n variable function has 2n valid maxterms

 A maxterm equals 0 at exactly one input


combination and is equal to 1 otherwise
 Example: (x+y+z) = 0 only when x=0, y=0,
z=0
EXAMPLE: THREE BINARY VARIABLES
CANONICAL FORM
 Any boolean function that is expressed as a
sum of minterms or as a product of
maxterms is said to be in its canonical form.
SUM OF MINTERMS

 A Boolean function can be expressed


algebraically from a given truth table
 by forming a minterm for each combination
of the variables that produces a 1 in the
function and
 then taking the OR of all those terms.
SUM OF MINTERMS

 F1(x, y, z) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7) = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6
+ m7
=x' y' z + xy' z’ + xy' z + xyz’ + xyz
SUM OF MINTERMS: EXAMPLE
 F = x + yz
= x(y + y’)(z + z’) + (x + x’)yz
= xyz + xyz’ + xy’z + xy’z’ + xyz + x’yz
= x’yz + xy’z’ + xy’z + xyz’ + xyz
= (3,4,5,6,7)

 Or convert the expression into truth-table and


then read the minterms from the table
PRODUCT OF MAXTERMS

 A Boolean function can be expressed


algebraically from a given truth table
 by forming a maxterm for each combination
of the variables that produces a 0 in the
function, and
 then taking the AND of all those maxterms.
PRODUCT OF MAXTERMS

 F1(x, y, z) = ∏(0,2,3) = M0 ×M2 ×M3


= (x + y + z)(x + y'+z)(x + y'+z')
PRODUCT OF MAXTERMS: EXAMPLE
 F = xy + x’z = (xy+x’)(xy+z)
= (x+x’)(y+x’)(x+z)(y+z) = (x’+y)(x+z)(y+z)

x’+y = x’+y+zz’ = (x’+y+z)(x’+y+z’)


x+z = x+z+yy’ = (x+y+z)(x+y’+z)
y+z = y+z+xx ’ = (x+y+z)(x ’+y+z)

F =(x+y+z)(x+y’+z)(x’+y+z)(x’+y+z’)
=M0M2M4M5= ∏(0, 2, 4,5)

 Or convert the expression into truth-table and


then read the maxterms from the table
CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL
FORMS
 Conversion between minterms and maxterms
m0 = x’y’z’ = (x+y+z)’ = (M0)’
 In general, mi = (Mi)’

 Sum of minterms  Product of maxterms:


f = (0,1,2,3,6)
f’= (4,5,7) = m4 + m5 + m7
(f’)’= (m4 + m5 + m7)’
f = m4’ m5’ m7’ [DeMorgan’s law]
= M4 M5 M7 = ∏(4,5,7)
CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL
FORMS
 In general, to convert from one canonical form
to another, interchange the symbols  and ∏
and list those numbers missing from the
original form.

 Example: f = (0,1,2,3,6) = ∏(4,5,7)


PRACTICE
 Express the following function (four variables:
A, B, C, D) as a sum of minterms and as a
product of maxterms:
 F = B'D + A'D + BD

 F = ∑(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,13, 15)


= ∏(0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14)
STANDARD FORM
 Any boolean function that is expressed as a
sum of products (SOP) or as a product of
sums (POS), where each product-term or
sum-term may contain one, two, or any
number of variables, is said to be in its
standard form.

 SOP: f(x,y,z) = xy + x’yz + xy’z


 POS: f(x,y,z) = (x’ + y’)(x + y’ + z’)(x’ + y +

z’)
NON-STANDARD AND STANDARD
FORMS
PRACTICE
 Convert the following expression into sum of
products and product of sums:
 (AB + C)(B + C'D)

 (AB + C)(B + C'D)


= AB + BC + ABC'D + CC'D
= AB(1 + C'D) + BC
= AB + BC (SOP form)
= B(A + C) (POS form)
CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS
 Canonical forms
 Sum of minterms (SOM)
 Product of maxterms (POM)
 Standard forms (may use less gates)

 Sum of products (SOP)


 Product of sums (POS)
 F = ab+a’ (already sum of products:SOP)

 F = ab + a’(b+b’) (expanding term)

 F = ab + a’b + a’b’ (it is canonical

form:SOM)
OTHER LOGIC OPERATIONS
 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
 22n functions for n binary variables.

 16 functions of two binary variables.


BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES
 Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT
operations
 Constructing gates of other logic operations

 The feasibility and economy;


 The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
 The basic properties of the binary
operations (commutative and associative);
 The ability of the gate to implement Boolean
functions.
SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES

Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates


SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES

Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates


MULTIPLE INPUTS
 Extension to multiple inputs
 A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
 If its binary operation is commutative and

associative.
 AND and OR are commutative and
associative.
 OR

 x+y = y+x

 (x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z

 AND

 xy = yx

 (x y)z = x(y z) = x y z
MULTIPLE INPUTS
 NAND and NOR are commutative but not
associative → they are not extendable.
MULTIPLE INPUTS
 Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate,
Multiple NAND = a complement of AND.
 The cascaded NAND operations = sum of

products.
 The cascaded NOR operations = product of

sums.
MULTIPLE INPUTS
 The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and
associative.
 Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon

 XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the

inputs variables have an odd number of 1's.


POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC
 Positive and Negative
Logic
 Two signal values <=>
two logic values
 Positive logic: H=1;
L=0
 Negative logic: H=0;
L=1
 Consider a TTL gate

 A positive logic AND


gate
 A negative logic OR
gate
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC
SYLLABUS
 Chapter 2 (Excluding Section 2.9)

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