Internal Combustion Engines

CLO CLO Statement PLO/ Taxonom

y Level
. GA
1 Explain the basic knowledge, construction and working
of various types of IC engines and its components.
PLO-1 C3
2 Solve numerical problems related to the design and
operation of IC engines.
PLO-3 C3
3
Describe the effect of engine operating parameters
(air/fuel ratio, ignition timing, and fuel properties)
on engine emissions.
PLO-7 C3
4 Evaluate the currently adopted engine technological

developments using already developed theories and

models. PLO-12 C5
Lecture # 1

Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

1. Introduction
2. Early History
3. Engine Classification
4. Terminology & Abbreviations
5. Engine Components
6. Basic Engine Cycles
7. Hybrid Vehicles
8. Fuel Cell Vehicles
9. Engine Emissions & Air Pollution
Internal Combustion Engine

The Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is a heat engine

that converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy,
usually made available on a rotating output shaft.
Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal
energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the
engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure
of the gases within the engine, and the high-pressure gas then
expands against the mechanical mechanisms of the engine.
 Internal
Chemical Energy Combustion Mechanical Energy
Fuel Engine
Rotating Output Shaft

This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the

engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.
The crankshaft, in turn, is connected to a transmission and/or
power train to transmit the rotating mechanical energy to the
desired final use
For engines this will often be the
propulsion of a vehicle (i.e., automobile, truck, locomotive,
marine vessel, or airplane).
Other applications include stationary engines to drive generators
or pumps, and portable engines for things like chain saws and lawn
mowers.

Vehicle
Internal Propulsion
Combustion
Engine (ICE) Stationary
Engines
Most internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having
pistons that reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally
within the engine.

Engine are better classified as external

combustion engines (i.e., combustion
takes place outside the mechanical engine
system).
&
internal combustion engines such as are
rocket engines, jet engines, and firearms not
included in this course.
• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion takes place within
working fluid of the engine, thus fluid gets contaminated with
combustion products.
– Petrol engine is an example of internal combustion engine,
where the working fluid is a mixture of air and fuel .
• In an External combustion engine, working fluid gets energy
using boilers by burning fossil fuels or any other fuel, thus the
working fluid does not come in contact with combustion products.
– Steam engine is an example of external combustion engine,
where the working fluid is steam.
 Heat Engines

Internal combustion engine External combustion engine

Task :To be completed by student………….!!!!!

Reciprocating engines can have one cylinder or many, up to 20 or
more. The cylinders can be arranged in many different geometric
configurations.
Sizes range from small model airplane engines with power output
on the order of 100 watts to large multi-cylinder stationary
engines that produce thousands of kilowatts per cylinder.
There are so many different engine manufacturers, past, present,
and future, that produce and have produced engines which differ in
size, geometry, style, and operating characteristics that no
absolute limit can be stated for any range of engine characteristics
(i.e., size, number of cylinders, strokes in a cycle, etc.).
This book will work within normal characteristic ranges of engine
geometries and operating parameters, but there can always be
exceptions to these.
Early development of modern internal combustion engines occurred
in the latter half of the 1800s and coincided with the development
of the automobile.
History records earlier examples of crude internal combustion
engines and self-propelled road vehicles dating back as far as the
1600s [29]. Most of these early vehicles were steam-driven
prototypes which never became practical operating vehicles.
around the world.
Technology, roads, materials, and fuels were not yet developed
enough. Very early examples of heat engines, including both
internal combustion and external combustion, used gun powder
and other solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels.
Major development of the modern steam engine and, consequently,
the railroad locomotive occurred in the latter half of the 1700s and
early 1800s.
By the 1820s and 1830s, railroads were present in several countries
around the world
In addition to a great amount of experimentation and development
in Europe and the United States during the middle and latter half of
the 1800s, two other technological occurrences during this time
stimulated the emergence of the internal combustion engine.
In 1859, the discovery of crude oil in Pennsylvania finally made
available the development of reliable fuels which could be used in
these newly developed engines.
Up to this time, the lack of good, consistent fuels was a major
drawback in engine development.
Fuels like whale oil, coal gas, mineral oils, coal, and gun powder
which were available before this time were less than ideal for engine
use and development.
It still took many years before products of the petroleum industry
evolved from the first crude oil to gasoline, the automobile fuel of
the 20th century.
However, improved hydrocarbon products began to appear as early
 The second technological invention that stimulated the
development of the internal combustion engine was the pneumatic
rubber tire, which was first marketed by John B. Dunlop in 1888.
This invention made the automobile much more practical and
desirable and thus generated a large market for propulsion systems,
including the internal combustion engine.
 During the early years of the automobile, the internal
combustion engine competed with electricity and steam engines as
the basic means of propulsion.
Early in the 20th century, electricity and steam faded from
the automobile picture-electricity because of the limited range it
provided, and steam because of the long start-up time needed.
Thus, the 20th century is the period of the internal
combustion engine and the automobiles powered by internal
combustion engine
 During this time, engines operating on the same basic four-
stroke cycle as the modern automobile engine began to evolve as
the best design.
Although many people were working on four-stroke cycle design,
Otto was given credit when its prototype engine was built in
1876.
In the 1880s the internal combustion engine first appeared in
automobiles.
Also in this decade the two-stroke cycle engine became practical
and was manufactured in large numbers.
Early Internal Combustion Engines
By 1892, Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) had perfected his compression
ignition engine into basically the same diesel engine known today.
This was after years of development work which included the use of
solid fuel in his early experimental engines.
Early compression ignition engines were noisy, large, slow,
single-cylinder engines. They were, however, generally more
efficient than spark ignition engines.
It wasn't until the 1920s that multi-cylinder compression ignition
engines were made small enough to be used with automobiles and
trucks.
Engine Classification
Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of
different ways:

1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI)
An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use
of a spark plug.
The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge
between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber surrounding the plug.
In early engine development, before the invention of the electric
spark plug, many forms of torch holes were used to initiate
combustion from an external flame.

(b) Compression Ignition (CI).

The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel
mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion
chamber caused by high compression.
2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle.
A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements
over two engine revolutions for each cycle.

(b) Two-Stroke Cycle.

A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one
revolution for each cycle.
Engine Classification by Valve Location.

(a) Valve in block, L head.

Older automobiles and some
small engines.
(b) Valve in head, I head.
Standard on modern
automobiles.
(c) One valve in head and one
valve in block, F head. Older,
less common automobiles.
(d) Valves in block on opposite
sides of cylinder, T head. Some
historic automobile engines.
3. Valve Location ………(continue …previous figure……)
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head
engine.
(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine.
Some historic engines with valves in block had the intake valve on
one side of the cylinder and the exhaust valve on the other side.
These were called T Head engines.
4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating Engine
Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate
back and forth.
The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each
cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by
mechanical linkage with the pistons.

(b) Rotary Engine

Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-
concentric rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built
into the non-rotating block.
Rotary Engine
 In-Line

Single Cylinder V Engine

5. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines

(a) Single Cylinder.

Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft.
(b) In-Line.
Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other
along the length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11
cylinders or possibly more. In-line four-cylinder engines are
very common for automobile and other applications. In-line six
and eight cylinders are historically common automobile
engines.
In-line engines are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or
(c) V Engine.
Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a
single crankshaft.
The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from
15° to 120°, with 60°-90° being common.
V engines have even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more.
V6s and V8s are common automobile engines, with V12s and
V16s (historic) found in some luxury and high-performance
vehicles.
(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine.
Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a single
crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V). These are common on
small aircraft and some automobiles with an even number of
cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are often
called flat engines (e.g., flat four).
(e) W Engine.
Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the
same crankshaft.

Not common, but some have

been developed for racing
automobiles, both modern and
historic. Usually 12 cylinders
with about a 60° angle between
each bank.
(I) Opposed Piston Engine.
Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the
center between the pistons. A single-combustion process
causes two power strokes at the same time, with each piston being
pushed away from the center and delivering power to a separate
crankshaft at each end of the cylinder.

Engine output is either on two

rotating crankshafts or on one
crankshaft incorporating complex
mechanical linkage.
(g) Radial Engine.
Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the
central crankshaft. The connecting rods of the pistons are
connected to a master rod which, in turn, is connected to the
crankshaft.
A bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd number
of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more.
Operating on a four-stroke cycle, every other cylinder fires and has
a power stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation.
Many medium- and large-size propeller-driven aircraft use
radial engines.

For large aircraft, two or more

banks of cylinders are mounted
together, one behind the other on
a single crankshaft, making one
powerful, smooth engine.
Very large ship engines exist
with up to 54 cylinders, six
banks of 9 cylinders each.
6. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boosts system.

(b) Super charged: Intake air pressure increased with the
compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft.
(c) Turbo charged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine
compressor driven by the engine exhaust gases.
(d) Crankcase compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine which uses
the crankcase as the intake air compressor. Limited development
work has also been done on design and construction of four-stroke
cycle engines with crank case compression.
7. Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines

(a) Carbureted: A device for mixing air and fuel to facilitate

the combustion process
(b) Multipoint port fuel injection: One or more injectors at
each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle body fuel injection: Injectors upstream in intake
manifold.
(d) Gasoline direct injection: Injectors mounted in combustion
chambers with injection directly into cylinders.
8. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines

(a) Direct injection: Fuel injected into main combustion

chamber.
(b) Indirect injection: Fuel injected into secondary combustion
chamber.
(c) Homogeneous charge compression ignition: Some fuel
added during intake stroke.
9. Fuel used

(a) Gasoline
(b) Diesel oil or Fuel oil
(c) Gas, Natural gas, Methane
(d) LPG
(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl
(f) Dual fuel:
There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or
more fuels. Some, Usually large, CI engines use a combination of
natural gas and diesel fuel.
These are attractive in developing third world countries
because of the high cost of the diesel fuel.
Combined gasoline alcohol fuels are becoming more common
as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.

(g) Gasohol:

Common fuel consisting of

90% gasoline and
10% alcohol.
10. Application
(a) Automobile,
(b) Locomotive,
(c) Stationery,
(d) Marine,
(e) Aircraft, Small, Portable, chain saw, model airplane.
11. Type of cooling

(a) Air cooled

(b) Liquid cooled, Water-cooled

Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same

time to identify a given engine.
Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged,
reciprocating, spark ignition, four-stroke cycle overhead valve,
water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuel injected, v8 automobile
engine.
Lecture # 2

I C Engines Terminology Abbreviations & Components

• Spark Ignition (SI)

An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is

started by use of a spark plug.
• Compression Ignition (CI)

An engine in which the combustion process starts when the

air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the
combustion chamber caused by high compression. CI engines
are often called Diesel engines, especially in the non-technical
community.
• Top-Dead-Center (TDC)

Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away

from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of
most engines (not always), and dead because the piston stops
at this point.
Because in some engines top-dead-center is not at the top of
the engine (e.g., horizontally opposed engines, radial engines,
etc.), some Sources call this position Head-End-Dead- Center
(HEDC).
I C Engines Terminology
 Some sources call this piston position Top-Center (TC).

• When an occurrence in a cycle happens before TDC, it is

often abbreviated bTDC or bTC.
• When the occurrence happens after TDC, it will be
abbreviated aTDC or aTC.
• When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a
minimum called the clearance volume.
• Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC)

Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest

to the crankshaft. Some sources call this Crank-End-

Dead-Center (CEDC) because it is not always at the
bottom of the engine.
• Some sources call this point Bottom-Center (BC).
During an engine cycle things can happen before bottom-
dead-center, bBDC or bBC, and after bottom-dead-
center, aBDC or aBC.
• Direct Injection (DI)

Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine.

Engines have either one main combustion chamber (open
chamber) or a divided combustion chamber made up of a main
chamber and a smaller connected secondary chamber
• Indirect Injection (IDI)

Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine

with a divided combustion chamber.
• Bore

Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which

is the same minus a very small clearance.

• Stroke

Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to

the other: TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.

• Clearance Volume

Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at

TDC.
Basic geometry of the
reciprocating internal
combustion engine.
• Displacement or Displacement Volume

Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one

stroke. Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the
entire engine (one cylinder times number of cylinders). Some
literature calls this swept volume.
• Air-Fuel Ratio (AF)

Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.

• Fuel-Air Ratio (FA)

Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.

• Brake Maximum Torque (BMT)

Speed at which maximum torque occurs.

• Overhead Valve (ORV)

Valves mounted in engine head.

• Overhead Cam (ORC)

Camshaft mounted in engine head, giving more direct control

of valves which are also mounted in engine head.
• Fuel Injected (FI)
Components :

(A) valve seat,

(B) head,

(C) stem,

(D) guide,
(E)
spring,

(F) camshaft.

Figure :Poppet valve is spring loaded closed, and pushed open by cam action at proper
time in cycle. Most automobile engines and other reciprocating engines use poppet valves.
ENGINE COMPONENTS

• Block

Body of engine containing the cylinders, made of cast iron or

aluminium. In many older engines, the valves and valve ports
were contained in the block.
The block of water-cooled engines includes a water jacket cast
around the cylinders.
On air-cooled engines, the exterior surface of the block has
cooling fins.
• Camshaft

Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper

time in the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical
or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, tappets).
Most modern automobile engines have one or more
camshafts mounted in the engine head (overhead cam). Most
older engines had camshafts in the crankcase.
Camshafts are generally made of forged steel or cast
iron and are driven off the crankshaft by means of a belt or
chain (timing chain).
Cutaway drawing of Chrysler 2.2-liter displacement
four-cylinder spark-ignition engine.(Upper part)
 To reduce weight, some cams are made from a hollow
shaft with the cam lobes press-fit on.
In four-stroke cycle engines, the camshaft rotates at
half engine speed.
• Carburetor

Venturi flow device which meters the proper amount of

fuel into the air flow by means of a pressure differential. For
many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all
automobile (and other) engines.
It is still used on lowcost small engines like lawn
mowers, but is uncommon on new automobiles.
Cutaway drawing of Chrysler 2.2-liter displacement
four-cylinder spark-ignition engine. (middle part)
• Combustion chamber

The end of the cylinder between the head and the

piston face where combustion occurs. The size of the
combustion chamber continuously changes from a minimum
volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum when the
piston is at BDC.
The term "cylinder" is sometimes synonymous with
"combustion chamber".
• Connecting rod

Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft,

usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may
be aluminium in some small engines.
• Connecting rod bearing

Bearing where connecting rod fastens to crankshaft.

• Cooling fins

Metal fins on the outside surfaces of cylinders and

head of an air cooled engine. These extended surfaces cool the
cylinders by conduction and convection.
• Crankcase

Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating

crankshaft. In many engines, the oil pan makes up part of the
crankcase housing.
Cutaway drawing of Chrysler 2.2-liter displacement
four-cylinder spark-ignition engine. (lower part)
• Crankshaft

Rotating shaft through which engine work output is

supplied to external systems. The crankshaft is connected to
the engine block with the main bearings. It is rotated by the
reciprocating pistons through connecting rods connected to
the crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This offset is
sometimes called crank throw or crank radius. Most
crankshafts are made of forged steel, while some are made of
cast iron
Crankshaft
• Cylinders

The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the

pistons reciprocate back and forth. The walls of the cylinder
have highly polished hard surfaces.
Cylinders may be machined directly in the engine
block, or a hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may be pressed into
the softer metal block. Sleeves may be dry sleeves, which do
not contact the liquid in the water jacket, or wet sleeves, which
form part of the water jacket.
In a few engines, the cylinder walls are given a knurled
surface to help hold a lubricant film on the walls. In some very
rare cases, the cross section of the cylinder is not round.
• Exhaust system

Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the

cylinders, treating them, and exhausting them to the
surroundings. It consists of an exhaust manifold which carries
the exhaust gases away from the engine, a thermal or catalytic
converter to reduce emissions, a muffler to reduce engine noise,
and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases away from the passenger
compartment.
• Catalytic converter

Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic

material that promotes reduction of emissions by chemical
reaction.
• Exhaust manifold

Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from

the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron.

• Fan

Most engines have an engine-driven fan to increase air

flow through the radiator and through the engine
compartment, which increases waste heat removal from the
engine.
Fans can be driven mechanically or electrically, and
can run continuously or be used only when needed.
• Flywheel

Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia

connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The purpose of the
flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular
momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power
strokes and smooths out engine operation.
On some aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel,
as does the rotating blade on many lawn mowers.
• Fuel injector

A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on SI

engines or into the cylinder on CI engines.
On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at the intake
valve ports on multipoint port injector systems and
upstream at the intake manifold inlet on throttle body injector
systems.
In a few SI engines, injectors spray directly into the
combustion chamber.
• Fuel pump

Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply

fuel from the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine. Many modern
automobiles have an electric fuel pump mounted submerged in
the fuel tank.
Some small engines and early automobiles had no fuel
pump, relying on gravity feed.
• Head

The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually

containing part of the clearance volume of the combustion
chamber.
The head is usually cast iron or aluminium, and bolts to
the engine block. In some less common engines, the head is one
piece with the block. The head contains the spark plugs in SI
engines and the fuel injectors in CI engines and some SI engines.
Most modern engines have the valves in the head, and
many have the camshaft(s) positioned there also (overhead
valves and overhead cam).
• Head gasket

Gasket which serves as a sealant between the engine

block and head where they bolt together. They are usually
made in sandwich construction of metal and composite
materials. Some engines use liquid head gaskets.
• Intake manifold

Piping system which delivers incoming air to the

cylinders, usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite
material.
In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake
manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
Some intake manifolds are heated to enhance fuel
evaporation.The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called a
runner.
• Main bearing

The bearings connected to the engine block in which

the crankshaft rotates. The maximum number of main bearings
would be equal to the number of pistons plus one, or one
between each set of pistons plus the two ends.
On some less powerful engines, the number of main
bearings is less than this maximum.
• Oil pan

Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine

block, making up part of the crankcase. Acts as the oil sump
for most engines.
• Oil pump

Pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to

required lubrication points. The oil pump can be electrically
driven, but is most commonly mechanically driven by the
engine.
Some small engines do not have an oil pump and are
lubricated by splash distribution.
• Piston

The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and

forth in the cylinder, transmitting the pressure forces in the
combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft. The top of the
piston is called the crown and the sides are called
the skirt.
The face on the crown makes up one wall of the
combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly contoured
surface.
Some pistons contain an indented bowl in the crown,
which makes up a large percent of the clearance volume. Pistons
 Iron and steel pistons can have sharper corners because
of their higher strength. They also have lower thermal
expansion, which allows for tighter tolerances and less crevice
volume. Aluminum pistons are lighter and have less mass
inertia.
Sometimes synthetic or composite materials are used
for the body of the piston, with only the crown made of metal.
Some pistons have a ceramic coating on the face.
• Piston rings
• Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston
and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls. Near the top
of the piston are usually two or more compression rings made of
highly polished hard chrome steel.
• The purpose of these is to form a seal between the piston and
cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in the
combustion chamber from leaking past the piston into the
crankcase (blowby).
• Below the compression rings on the piston is at least one oil ring,
which assists in lubricating the cylinder walls and scrapes away
excess oil to reduce oil consumption.
• Push rods

Mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on

overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the crankcase. Many
push rods have oil passages through their length as part of a
pressurized lubrication system.
• Radiator

Liquid-to-air heat exchanger of honeycomb

construction used to remove heat from the engine coolant after
the engine has been cooled. The radiator is usually mounted in
front of the engine in the flow of air as the automobile moves
forward. An engine-driven fan is often used to increase air
flow through
• the radiator.
• Spark plug

Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI

engine by creating a high-voltage discharge across an
electrode gap. Spark plugs are usually made of metal
surrounded with ceramic insulation.
Some modern spark plugs have built-in pressure sensors which
supply one of the inputs into engine control.
• Speed control-cruise control

Automatic electric-mechanical control system that

keeps the automobile operating at a constant speed by
controlling engine speed.
Lecture # 3
Four-Stroke Engine
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction
The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open
and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in
the combustion chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum.
1st Stroke
The resulting pressure differential through
the intake system from atmospheric pressure TDC

on the outside to the vacuum on the inside

causes air to be pushed into the cylinder. BDC

As the air passes through the intake system,

fuel is added to it in the desired amount by
means of fuel injectors or a carburetor.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke

When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the
piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses
the air-fuel mixture, raising both the pressure & temperature in
2nd Stroke
the cylinder.
The finite time required to close the intake TDC

valve means that actual compression doesn't

start until sometime aBDC. Near the end of
BDC
the compression stroke, the spark plug is
fired and combustion is initiated.
3. Combustion
Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite
length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-
volume combustion).

Combustion starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly

bTDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC.
Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that
of exhaust products and increases the temperature in the cylinder
to a very high peak value. This, in turn, raises the pressure in the
cylinder to a very high peak value.
4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke

With all valves closed, the high pressure created by the combustion
process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle. 3rd Stroke

As the piston travels from TDC to BDC,

TDC
cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure
and temperature to drop.
BDC
5. Exhaust Blowdown
Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and
exhaust blow down occurs. Pressure and temperature in the
cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at this point, and a
pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is
open to atmospheric pressure.
TDC

This pressure differential causes much

of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed
BDC
out of the cylinder and through the
exhaust system when the piston is
near BDC.
Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction
Second Stroke: Compression Stroke Combustion
This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which
lowers the cycle thermal efficiency.
Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained
during the power stroke but is required because of the finite time
needed for exhaust blow-down.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke

By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blow-down is

complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at
approximately atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust valve
remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the
4th Stroke
exhaust stroke.
TDC
This pushes most of the remaining exhaust
gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust
system at about atmospheric pressure, BDC

leaving only that trapped in the clearance

volume when the piston reaches TDC.
Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke
Exhaust Blowdown
Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke
Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake valve starts
to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke
starts the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and
finally is fully closed sometime aTDC.
This period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are
open is called valve overlap.
 Four Strokes of an Engine
1st Stroke

2nd Stroke 4th Stroke

3rd Stroke
Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke

The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one major
difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.

2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke

The same as in an SI engine except that only air is compressed and
compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air. This
causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion
to start.
3. Combustion
Combustion is fully developed by TDC (2nd stroke) and continues
at about constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the
piston has started towards BDC.
4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke
The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston
travels towards BDC.
5. Exhaust Blowdown
Same as with an SI engine.
6. Fourth Stroke:
Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.
Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

1. Combustion:
With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the
temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.

2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke

Very high pressure created by the combustion process forces the
piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of the
combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease
as the piston travels towards BDC.
Two-Stroke SI
Engine Cycle
3. Exhaust Blowdown
At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs.
The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it
may be a slot in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the
piston approaches BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled
with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
4. Intake and Scavenging
When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC, the intake
slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel
enters under pressure. Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor
or fuel injection.
This incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust
gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a
combustible air-fuel mixture, a process called scavenging.
The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and
then the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes).
The higher pressure at which the air enters the cylinder is established
in one of two ways. Large two stroke cycle engines generally have a
supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the
crankcase.
On these engines the crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor
in addition to serving its normal function.
5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke
With all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels towards
TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure
and temperature.
Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by
the time the piston gets to TDC, combustion occurs and the next
engine cycle begins.
Two-Stroke Engine
Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
The two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to that of the SI
engine, except for the following two changes.
(1) No fuel is added to the incoming air, so that compression is
done on air only.
(2) Instead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in the
cylinder.
Near the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the
hot compressed air and combustion is initiated by self-ignition.
Hybrid Vehicles

Hybrid automobile (or truck) uses both an electric motor and

an internal combustion engine to provide power for propelling the
Vehicle. The goal of this type of vehicle are to provide better fuel
economy with fewer emissions.
Positive characteristics of a hybrid automobile:
1-Better fuel mileage

With a smaller engine operating at lean-burn steady-state condition

the engine can be optimized for minimum fuel usage. As C1 engines
are phased in, the fuel savings will become even greater because of
the higher thermal efficiency. Present hybrid automobiles available
to the public obtain 50 to 80 miles per gallon (mpg) with gasoline.

2=Fewer emissions.
Engines that run at one speed steady-state can be optimized to run
much c,leaner. Present available hybrid vehicles meet all present and
most future pollution standards
3-Combustion engines can be shut off when not needed or when the
vehicle is momentarily stopped. When the vehicle is then again
started, the startup can be very smooth with the help of the, electric
motor. Test automobiles powered totally by IC engines have been
developed to run on this on-off mode of operation.
However, without a large electric motor drive to help in startup,
these vehicles suffer in starting time lapse and probable long-term
starter deterioration.
4. The electric drive motors can be built as dual motor-generator
units. This allows for some of the kinetic energy of the moving
vehicle to be recovered when the vehicle is slowed down or
stopped. The regained energy is used by the generator to recharge
the battery.

:
Negative characteristics of a hybrid automobile:

1- High cost at present. The combination of many more

components and lower sales volume make these vehicles much more
costly to manufacture. Toyota expects tosell about 300,000 hybrid
vehicles in year 2005.

2- Vehicles must carry dual weight of two power units, engine and
motor. Often only one of these units will be in use, with the other
unit adding to the dead weight of the vehicle.
3- Any battery system will have a negative environmental
impact when the batter- are used up and discarded. Better
battery technology is needed.

4-Air conditioning and other auxiliary power requirements are

more difficult to satisfy with an electrical system. The IC engine
could not be turned off when auxiliary power is required. When
the engine is turned off the engine coolant system would have to
be circulated by electrical energy.
 (4)

(1)

Various Operational (5)

Modes of a Hybrid
Automobile.
(2)

(6)

(3)
(1) Start/low speed driving
(2) Engine start
(3) Propulsion by the engine
(4) Power generation during driving
(5) Full throttle acceleration
SUBJECT: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
CODE:ME-427 CREDIT HOUR: 2

COURSE CONTENTS:
Engine Basics Introduction and definition of IC Engines. Brief
history of engines with their classification and terminologies used in
engine technology. Description of many common engine
components both for 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines.
Engine Cycles Study of the basic cycles of operations in a
reciprocating IC Engine for both 4-stroke and 2-stroke design.
Analysis of the most common 4-stroke SI and CI engine cycles in
detail based on air-standard cycle.
COURSE CONTENTS:
Operating Characteristics Examination of the operating
characteristic of reciprocating IC Engines including the mechanical
output parameters of work, torque power and input requirements of
air, fuel, combustion efficiency and emission requirements of engine
exhaust Thermo-Chemistry & Fuels Review of the basic thermo-
chemistry principles in consideration to IC Engines. Description of
the octane number of SI fuel and Cetane number of CI fuels.
Discussion about gasoline and other possible alternative fuels and
their comparison study.
Air & Fuel Induction Detailed discussion of the intake systems of
IC Engines as to how the air-fuel as a mixture or individually are
delivered into the cylinder for combustion. The objective of the
intake system and its effect on engine efficiency. Differentiation
between intake system for SI & CI engine along with their required
component of each either naturally aspirated or forced charged.
Combustion & Exhaust Flow Examination of the complex process
of combustion that occurs in the combustion chamber of an IC
Engine.
Simplified models are used to describe this phenomenon. Study of
the broad operating parameters such as pressure, temperature, fuel,
knock, engine speed ... etc. Difference between the combustion
process in a CI and SI engine
Friction and Lubrication Engine Cooling System and Component
Lubrication System
RECOMMENDED BOOKS:
1. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engines
by William W. Pulkrabek
2. Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals. 2nd edition by J.B.
Heywood McGraw Internal.
3. Combustion Engines in theory and practice by C.F. Taylor
CLO Statement Domain PLO
Explain the basic knowledge, construction and working
1 C2 1
of various types of IC engines and its components.
Solve numerical problems related to the design and
2 C3 3
operation of IC engines.
Analyze the design and operation of various IC Engine
3 systems including preparation of air/fuel mixture, C4 7
combustion control and emission reduction.
Analyze the effect of engine operating parameters (air/fuel
4 ratio, ignition timing, and fuel properties) on engine C4 4
performance and emissions.