The Foundations: Logic and

Proofs
 Propositional Logic
Section 1.1

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 Propositions(Statements)

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 Propositions(Statements)

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 Propositions(Statements)

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 Negation of proposition

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 Negation of proposition

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 Conjunction of Two proposition

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 Conjunction of Two proposition

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 Disjunction of Two proposition

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 Disjunction of Two proposition

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 Examples

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 Exclusive or of two propositions

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 Exclusive or of two propositions

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 Conditional Statements(Implication)

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 Conditional Statements(Implication)

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 Understanding Implication 1

In p → q there does not need to be any connection

between the antecedent or the consequent. The
“meaning” of p → q depends only on the truth values of
p and q.
These implications are perfectly fine, but would not be
used in ordinary English.
• “If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more
money than Bill Gates. ”
• “If the moon is made of green cheese then I’m on welfare.”
• “If 1 + 1 = 3, then your grandma wears combat boots.”
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 Different Ways of Expressing p → q
if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q unless ¬p q when p
q if p
q whenever p p is sufficient for q
q follows from p q is necessary for p

a necessary condition for p is q

a sufficient condition for q is p
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 Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse
From p → q we can form new conditional statements .
• q→p
• ¬q → ¬p is the contrapositive of p → q
is the converse of p → q

• ¬p → ¬q is the inverse of p → q
Example: Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive
of “It is raining is a sufficient condition for me not going
to town.”
Solution:
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not raining.
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 Biconditional Statements

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 Biconditional Statements
If p and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditional
proposition p ↔ q, read as “p if and only if q .” The biconditional
p ↔ q denotes the proposition with this truth table:
p q P↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then

p ↔ q denotes “I am at home if and only if it is raining.”

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 Expressing the Biconditional
Some alternative ways “p if and only if q” is
expressed in English:
• p is necessary and sufficient for q
• if p then q, and conversely
• p iff q

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 Truth Tables For Compound Propositions
Construction of a truth table:
Rows
• Need a row for every possible combination of values for
the atomic propositions.
Columns
• Need a column for the compound proposition (usually at
far right)
• Need a column for the truth value of each expression
that occurs in the compound proposition as it is built up.
• This includes the atomic propositions
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 Problem
How many rows are there in a truth table with n
propositional variables?
Solution: 2n We will see how to do this in
Chapter 6.
Note that this means that with n propositional
variables, we can construct 2n distinct (that is,
not equivalent) propositions.

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 Precedence of Logical Operators

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 Example Truth Table
Construct a truth table for p ∨ q → ¬r
p q r ¬r p∨q p ∨ q → ¬r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T

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 Equivalent Propositions
Two propositions are equivalent if they always
have the same truth value.
Example: Show using a truth table that the
conditional is equivalent to the contrapositive.
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬q → ¬p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
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 Using a Truth Table to Show Non-
Equivalence
Example: Show using truth tables that neither
the converse nor inverse of an implication are
not equivalent to the implication.
Solution:

p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬p → ¬q q→p
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T

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