Jimma University

Institute of Health Sciences

College of Public Health
Department of Epidemiology

Sampling Methods

December, 2023
Jimma
• Sampling enables us to estimate the characteristic of a
population by directly observing a portion of the
population.

• Researchers are not interested in the sample itself,

but in what can be learned from the sample—and
how this information can be applied to the entire
population.

• Inferences about the population are based on the

information from the sample drawn from that
population
Sample Information

Population
What exactly IS a “sample”?
Steps needed to select a sample and ensure that this sample will fulfill its goals.

1. Establish the study's objectives

2. Define the target population
– Specifically, the target population is defined by
the following characteristics:
• Nature of data required
• Geographic location
• Reference period
• Other characteristics, such as socio-demographic
characteristics
3. Decide on the data to be collected
– To ensure that the requirements are operationally sound,
the necessary data terms and definitions also need to be
determined.
4. Set the level of precision
– Acceptable precision is important

↑ Sample size ≡ ↑ Precision ≡ ↑ Cost

5. Decide on the methods on measurement

6. Preparing Frame
– List of all members of the population from which
the sample will be taken
– The elements must not overlap
7. Testing and modifications
• The Pre-test
• Selection of the Sample
8. Conduct the Survey
• Organization of the Field Work
9. Data Processing and Analysis phase
• Summary and Analysis of the Data
10.Report writing and Dissemination
• Report writing
• Dissemination of Results
 Advantages of sampling:
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible
method of collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on
resource such as finance, personnel, and material.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to better
accuracy of collecting data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made
for sampling error
• Greater speed: Data can be collected and
summarized more quickly
 Disadvantages of sampling:
• There is always a sampling error.
• Sampling may create a feeling of
discrimination within the population.
 Errors in sampling
1) Sampling error: Errors introduced due to
errors in the selection of a sample.
– They cannot be avoided or totally eliminated.
2) Non-sampling error:
- Observational error
- Respondent error
- Lack of preciseness of definition
- Errors in editing and tabulation of data
 Sampling Terminology
• Reference population (or target population): the population
of interest to whom the researchers would like to make
generalizations.

• Sampling population: the subset of the target population

from which a sample will be drawn.

• Study population: the actual group in which the study is

conducted = Sample

• Study unit: the units on which information will be collected:

persons, housing units, etc.
 Sampling Terminology…

• Sampling frame:-
• List of all the sampling units from which
sample is drawn.
• e.g. children < 5 years of age, households,
health care units
• Need precise definitions of these for each
survey
Researchers are interested to know about factors associated with
ART use among HIV/AIDS patients attending certain hospitals in a
given Region

Target population = All ART

patients in the Region

Sampling population = All

ART patients in, e.g. 3,
hospitals in the Region

Sample
 Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

 Probability sampling
• Probability/Random sampling
– Each subject has a known probability of being
selected
• Allows application of statistical sampling
theory to results to:
– Generalise
– Test hypotheses
 Probability sampling..
• Homogeneity (sameness) of elements within
the population
• Random selection - Known, non-zero chance
of selecting each population element into
the sample.
• No major systematic bias
Only chance determines which elements are
included
 Probability sampling..
• Use whenever a major research goal is to
generalize survey findings to a larger
population.
• Is still subject to random sampling error
 Unrepresentativeness
• Even with random sampling we may end
up with an unrepresentative sample if we
Have:-
(1) an materially inadequate or incomplete
sampling frame
(2) an inadequate response rate
Most common probability
sampling methods
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling
6. Sampling with probability proportional to size
 1. Simple random sampling
• The required number of individuals are
selected at random from the sampling frame,
a list or a database of all individuals in the
population

• Each member of a population has an equal

chance of being included in the sample.
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the
population

– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N (where

N is the size of the population)

– Select the required number.

• The randomness of the sample is ensured
by:
• Use of “lottery’ methods
• Table of random numbers
• Computer programs
• SRS has certain limitations:
– Requires a sampling frame.
– Difficult if the reference population is dispersed.
– Minority subgroups of interest may not be
selected.
 2. Systematic random sampling
• Selection of individuals from the sampling
frame systematically
• Individuals are taken at regular intervals down
the list
• The starting point is chosen at random
• Important if the reference population is
arranged in some order:
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration books
 Steps in systematic random sampling

1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N

2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the
number of units in the population by the desired
sample size.
3. Select a number between one and K at random.
This number is called the random start and would
be the first number included in your sample.
4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

Note: Systematic sampling should not be used when

a cyclic repetition is inherent in the sampling
frame.
 Merits of Systematic random sampling
1. Procedure is simple and convenient to use.
2. Relatively less labor and time is needed.
3. If the population is sufficiently large and
homogeneous and if numbering of subjects
are available, then this method can provide
good results.
4. If start number (1st sample) is known, whole
samples can be determined. Thus sampling
can be repeated or checked.
 Demerits of Systematic random sampling
• If engulfed in any hidden cyclic trend, then this
technique can be dangerous.
 3. Stratified random sampling
• It is done when the population is known to be have
heterogeneity with regard to some factors and those
factors are used for stratification

• Using stratified sampling, the population is divided into

homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups called strata,
and

• A population can be stratified by any variable that is

available for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age, sex,
province of residence, income, etc.).
• A separate sample is taken independently from each
stratum.
• Any of the sampling methods can be used to sample
within each stratum.
• This method divide the population into non-
overlapping (mutually exclusive)groups (i.e., strata) of
size N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + Ni =
N.
• Identify size of sub-samples (n1, n2, n3,…ni;
n=n1+n2+n3….ni)
• ni=(ni/N) × n
Stratified Random Sample
 Principal reasons for stratification

 If data of known precision are wanted for

certain subdivisions of the population
 Administrative convenience
 Sampling problems may differ markedly in
different parts of the population
 Stratification may produce a gain in precision
in the estimates of characteristics.
Advantages of stratified sampling
• Every unit in a stratum has the same chance of being
selected.

• Using the same sampling fraction for all strata

ensures proportionate representation in the sample
of the characteristic being stratified.

• Adequate representation of minority subgroups of

interest can be ensured by stratification and by
varying the sampling fraction between strata as
required.
 Disadvantages

• The sampling frame of the entire population

has to be prepared separately for each
stratum.
• Varying the sampling fraction between strata,
to ensure selection of sufficient numbers in
minority subgroups for study, affects the
proportional representativeness of the
subgroups in the sample as a whole
• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Proportionate allocation:
n
nj  Nj
N

– nj is sample size of the jth stratum

– Nj is population size of the jth stratum
– n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size

– N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total population

size
 Example: Proportionate Allocation

• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60
 4. Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling is the most widely used to reduce
the cost
• The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike
stratified sampling where the strata are
heterogeneous
• Cluster sampling divides the population into groups
or clusters.
 Steps in cluster sampling
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population, and then all units
within selected clusters are included in the sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included in
the sample—they are represented by those from
selected clusters.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where some
units are selected from each group.
 Example
• In a school based study, we assume students of
the same school are homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and include all

students of the selected sections only
 Advantages
• Simple as complete list of sampling units within
population not required
• Provides logistical advantage
• Cost reduction
Disadvantages
• Cluster members are more likely to be alike
than those in another cluster (homogenous)
• do not have total control over the final
sample size.
 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to the cluster sampling, except that it
involves picking a sample from within each
chosen cluster, rather than including all units
in the cluster.
• This type of sampling requires at least two
stages.
• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the
sampling unit in the first sampling stage.

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the

sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.
 Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH
• In the first stage, large groups or clusters are
identified and selected. These clusters contain
more population units than are needed for the
final sample.

• In the second stage, population units are

picked from within the selected clusters (using
any of the possible probability sampling
methods) for a final sample.
• If more than two stages are used, the process of
choosing population units within clusters continues
until there is a final sample.

• With multi-stage sampling, you still have the benefit

of a more concentrated sample for cost reduction.
• However, the sample is not as concentrated as other
clusters and the sample size is still bigger than for a
simple random sample size.
• multi-stage sampling still saves a great amount
of time and effort by not having to create a list
of all the units in a population.
• To reduce sampling error we use design effect.
 6. Sampling with probability
proportional to size
• Probability sampling requires that each member of
the survey population has a chance of being included
in the sample, but it does not require that this chance
be the same for everyone.
• Requires that a sampling frame of clusters
with measures of size be available of
developed
• This information can be used in the sampling
selection in order to increase the efficiency.
• This is known as sampling with probability
proportional to size (PPS).
• With this method, the bigger the size of the
unit, the higher the chance it has of being
included in the sample.

• For this method to achieve increased

efficiency, the measure of size needs to be
accurate.
 Steps in PPS
1.List all villages in the project area
2.Calculate the running cumulative population
3.Determine the number of sites which will be visited and
the total sample size desired
4.Divide the total population of the project area by the
number of sites and get the sampling interval (SI)
5.Choose a number between 1 and the SI at random (RS)
6.Calculate the following series: RS; RS + SI; RS + 2SI;RS + 3SI;
...
 Example
• Planned clusters to be included in the study =
40
• Cumulative size of the HHs = 17,219
• Sampling interval = 17,219/40 = 430
• Random start between 1 and 430 = 73
• Clusters selected = 001, 005, 008, etc.
Cluster HH size Cum. Sampling Cluster
No. size No. selected
001 120 120 73 001
002 105 225
003 132 357
004 96 453
005 110 563 503 005
006 102 665
007 165 839
008 98 937 933 008
009 115 1,052
. . . . .
. . . . .
170 (last) 196 17,219
 B. Non-probability sampling
Non probability sampling does not involve random
selection
It does mean that non probability samples cannot
depend upon the rationale of probability theory
Most sampling methods are purposive in nature
because we usually approach the sampling problem
with a specific plan in mind.
Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is
practically impossible to use probability sampling
strategies
• non-probability sampling methods can be
useful when descriptive comments about the
sample itself are desired.
• they are quick, inexpensive and convenient.
• There are also other circumstances, such as
researches, when it is unfeasible or
impractical to conduct probability sampling.
Drawback of non-probability sampling

Estimation for the entire population is

not possible
The accuracy of the survey results can
not be determined
 The most common types of non-
probability sampling

1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling technique
 Types of non-probability sampling
1. Convenience sampling
Drawn at the convenience of the researcher.
Common in exploratory research.
Does not lead to any conclusion.
2. Volunteer sampling
• when people volunteer to be involved in the study.
• E.g. for psychological experiments or pharmaceutical
trials (drug testing)
 Types of non-probability sampling
3. Judgmental sampling
– Sampling based on some judgment, feelings or
experience of the researcher. If inference drawing
is not necessary, these samples are quite useful.
• E.g. used in pre-testing of questionnaires and focus
groups. Also in laboratory settings where the choice
of experimental subjects (i.e., animal, human)
 Types of non-probability sampling
4. Quota sampling
– Requires that a certain number be selected in each
category--usually done on a first-come first included basis.
– Sampling stops when enough are included in each category
5. Snowball sampling
– Used in studies involving respondents who are rare to find. To
start with, the researcher compiles a short list of sample units
from various sources.
– Each of these respondents are contacted to provide names of
other probable respondents.
END