Sinusoids

• A Sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the

sine or cosine function.
• A Sinusoidal current is referred to as
alternating current(ac).
• Currents driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called ac circuits.
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage

The sinusoid is shown in Fig.1(a) as a function of its argument and in Fig.1(b) as a

function of time.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
• Sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds.
• T is called the period of sinusoid.
• From Fig.1 we conclude that ωT = 2π.
• T = 2π/ω
• Period T is the number of seconds per cycle. Cyclic
frequency f is the number of cycles per second.
• F = 1/T
• A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine
form.
• When comparing two sinusoids, both has to be
expressed either as sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes.
 Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form
as
Z = x + jy
X = Real part of z
Y= Imaginary part of z
j=
A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
 Phasors
A complex number z can be written in rectangular
form as
Z = x + jy
X = Real part of z
Y= Imaginary part of z
j=
Complex number z can also be written in polar or
exponential form as

Where r is the magnitude of z, and Φ is the phase of z.

Z can be represented in three ways as follows:

Given x and y, we can get r and Φ as

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Given the complex numbers, the following
operations are important:

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Sinusoid-phasor transformation

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
 Time domain and Frequency domain
representations

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Node voltage analysis
Analysing AC circuits requires three steps:
• Transform the circuit to the frequency or
phasor domain.
• Solve the problem using circuit techniques
• The resulting phasor has to be transformed
into time domain.
 Nodal Analysis
• The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL).
• The aim of the nodal analysis is to determine voltage at each
node relative to the reference ground.
Procedure for nodal analysis:
• Identify the principal nodes and choose one of them
as reference node.
• Label the node voltages with respect to Ground from all the
principal nodes except the reference node.
• Write nodal equations at all the principal nodes except the
reference node. Nodal equation is obtained by applying
Kirchhoff’s current law.
• Solve the nodal equations to get the node voltages.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Find ix in the circuit using nodal analysis.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Convert into frequency domain:

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
After solving the equations,

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice Problem:1 Calculate V1 and V2 in the circuit using nodal method.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice problem:2 Using nodal analysis, find v1 and v2 in the circuit of Fig.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Mesh Analysis
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law forms the basis of mesh
analysis.
• Mesh analysis is used to find the loop currents in the
meshes.
Procedure for mesh analysis:
• Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in
either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
• Identify the current which flows through each
element in terms of mesh currents.
• Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equations
are obtained by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• Solve the mesh equations to get the mesh currents.
Determine current Io in the circuit using mesh analysis.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
 Substituting I3 in two mesh equations

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Solve for V0 in the circuit using mesh analysis

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
As shown in the figure meshes 3 and 4 form a supermesh due to the current source
between the meshes. For mesh 1, KVL gives

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
From equations 1 and 2, the matrix form can be written as,

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice problem:3 Calculate current Io in the circuit

  58  j10
1  298  j 20

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice problem:4 Calculate current Io in the circuit

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Superposition Theorem
• Superposition theorem is based on the
concept of linearity between the response and
excitation of an electrical circuit.
• It states that the response in a particular
branch of a linear circuit when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same
time is equivalent to the sum of the responses
due to each independent source acting at a
time.
Procedure for superposition theorem:
• Consider one independent source and eliminate the
remaining independent sources present in the network.
• Repeat the above step for all the independent sources
present in the network.
• Add all the responses to get the overall response .
• If the circuit operates at different frequencies, we must
have a different frequency-domain circuit for each
frequency.
• The total response must be obtained by adding the
individual responses in time domain.
• It is incorrect to add the responses in phasor or
frequency domain.
 Use the superposition theorem to find I0
in the circuit.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
 Solution:

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Find v0 in the circuit using superposition
theorem

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice Problem:5 Find io in the circuit shown in Fig. using superposition.

i0 4  0.7906cos(4t - 71.56 )

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Practice problem:6 Using the superposition principle, find ix in the circuit of Fig.

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,” 2013, 5th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Thank You