Skeletal System

Anil Kumar
Associate Professor
 SKELETON (skeletos)
Bony & cartilaginous framework of the
body
Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Functions-
Rigid framework of the body
Protection to the viscera
Provides leverage for body movements.
 The Skeletal System

 Parts of the skeletal system

 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to
muscle)
Bone :-

Highly vascular mineralized connective tissue ,

consisting of cells & dense intercellular organic matrix

impregnated with organic salts.

Functions
1.Shape & Support
2.Protection
3.Movement
4.Storage
5.Hematopoiesis
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to location

AXIAL

skull 22
hyoid 1
ossicles 6
vertebrae 26
ribs & sternum 25_
80
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to location

APPENDICULAR
Upper Extremities Lower Extremities
clavicle 2 hip bone 2
scapulae 2 femur 2
humerus 2 patella 2
radius 2 tibia 2
ulna 2 fibula 2
carpals 16 tarsals
14
metacarpals 10 metatarsals 10
phalanges 28__ phalanges 28__
64 62
AXIAL SKELETON
I. SKULL
= skeleton --- head & face
= flattened & irregular
= united by joints (sutures)
 cranium -- skull minus mandible
 calvarium -- skull after the bones of
the face have been removed
 cavities: a. Cranial - contains the
brain
b. Orbital - contains eyeball
& accessory
organs
c. nasal
The Skull
Bones of the Skull
Human Skull, Superior View
Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
Divisions of the bones of the skull
a. Cerebral / cranial bones / brain case (8 bones)
unpaired (4) paired (4)
1. occipital 1. parietal
2. frontal 2. temporal
3. sphenoid
4. ethmoid
b. Facial or visceral cranium
paired (12) unpaired (2)
a. Nasal a. Vomer
b. Lacrimal b. Mandible
c. Maxilla
d. Zygomatic / malar / cheek bones
e. Palatine
f. Inferior nasal concha or turbinate
Paranasal Sinuses
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice
Fontanelle
= membrane filled spaces found in the
skull of
newborn infants

e.g.: 1. anterior = largest

2. posterior
3. anterolateral (sphenoidal)
4. posterolateral (mastoid)
AXIAL SKELETON
I. HYOID BONE
= small U-shape; lies in front of the
neck
= base of the tongue is attached
= lies between mandible & thyroid
cartilage

II. OSSICLES
= small bones of the ear
a. Stapes (stirrup) 2
b. Incus (anvil) 2
c. Malleus (hammer) 2
AXIAL SKELETON
I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
= long, curved, slightly movable
pillar
= united together by cartilage &
ligaments
= 71 – 75 cm. long
= formed by series of bones --
vertebrae

FUNCTION:
1. support of the trunk
2. contains & protects the
spinal cord & nerves
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Classification of vertebra young adult
cervical 7 7
thoracic 12 12
lumbar 5 5
sacral 5 1
coccygeal 4 1
33 26
Intervertebral discs = flattened plates of
fibrocartilage that
are interposed between the adjacent surfaces
of the bodies of vertebrae
FUNCTION: 1. uniting medium between
vertebrae
2. main shock absorber
3. give flexibility & movement to the
whole
vertebral column
Primary curvature- concavity facing
anteriorly in thoracic and sacral regions
Secondary curvature- convex ant. In cervical
and lumber regions
Movements
Flexion, extension, lateral flexion, rotation,
circumdiction.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
General parts of vertebrae
1. body 5. transverse process
2. arch 6. articular process
3. pedicle or root 7. spinous process
4. lamina 8. spinal or vertebral
foramen

Special characteristics of individual vertebrae

a. Cervical vertebrae (7) = forms the skeleton of
the neck, all have transverse foramen
atypical cervical vertebrae:
1. atlas -- 1st
2. axis or epistropheus = 2nd
3. 7th cervical vertebrae = spinous
process not bifid, small transverse foramen
b. Thoracic vertebrae (12) = costal pits - rib
attachment
= circular vertebral canal
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Special characteristics of individual vertebrae cont’n

c. Lumbar vertebrae (5) = presence of

mamillary & accessory processes
= triangular vertebral foramen

d. Sacrum = inverted triangular bone situated

between hip bones

e. Coccygeal vertebrae (1) = 4 small incomplete

vertebrae
fused to form the coccyx / tail bone;
triangular
AXIAL SKELETON
I. STERNUM (breast bone)
= flat bone, found -- anterior
thoracic wall
= composed of 2 plates of compact
bone
with a layer of spongy bone
in between
containing red bone marrow

PARTS:
a. Manubrium
b. Corpus or body
c. Xiphoid process
AXIAL SKELETON
I. RIBS (12 pairs)
= narrow arched flat bones with 2 ends
1. vertebral - posterior; attaches with thoracic
2. sternal - anterior; attaches with costal cartilages

Classification of ribs:
a. Sternal or true ribs (1st to 7th)
- ribs whose costal cartilages are directly
attached to sternum
b. Asternal or false ribs (8th to 12th)
- ribs whose costal cartilages are not attached
directly to the sternum but to 7th

subdivisions: 1. false rib proper - 8th, 9th,

10th ribs
2. floating or hanging ribs – 11th &
12th
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE)

1. Clavicle (collar bone)

2. Scapula (shoulder blade) – articulates
with humerus & clavicle
3. Humerus (arm bone) - longest
& largest bone of UE
articulates with scapula
(above)
radius & ulna (below)
4. Radius - lateral bone of the
forearm; cup- shaped head
5. Ulna - principal bone of the
forearm;
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE) cont’n
6. Carpals (wrist bone) - 8 bones arranged into 2
rows
- proximal & distal rows
She Looks Too Pretty Try To
Catch Her
Scaphoid, Lunate,Triquetrum, Pisiform,Trapezium,
Trapezoid Capitate, Hamate
7. Metacarpals (bones of the hand) - 5 long
bones placed between carpals & phalanges
- numbered from lateral to medial
1. Phalanges (bones of the fingers) = 14 long
bones of the fingers -- 3 bones except thumb -
2 bones
Clavicale
Medial sternal end-rounded—manubrium-
sternoclavicular joint
Lateral acromial end-flat-acromioclavicular
joint
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE)
1. Hip bone (innominate bone)

right & left hip bones + sacrum = pelvic

girdle
3 bones: 1. ilium*
*Converge on acetabulum 
a concave fossa --
2. ischium*
articulates with head of
3. pubis*
femur  form hip joint
2. Femur (thigh) = longest, strongest, largest
bone in the body
3. Tibia (shin bone) = long bone; anterior,
medial,
& larger of the 2 bones of the leg
4. Fibula (peroneal bone) = long slender bone
placed
parallel with the tibia but located
laterally
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE) cont’n
5. Tarsals (ankle bone) = short bones;
2 rows: internal & external rows
#
6. Metatarsals (bones of foot) = 5 long bones
numbered from medial to lateral
7. Phalanges (bones of toes) = similar to
bones of the fingers

# Cute Tina Never Could Cooperate

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
• According to shape
1. long bones = length is greater than
breadth
= consists of shaft (diaphysis) &
two extremities (epiphysis)
diaphysis = filled with yellow marrow
= cylindrical, large space or canal at the
center
= periosteum
epiphysis = made up of cancellous tissue
e.g.: femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna, phalanges

Membranes: 1. periosteum
2. endosteum
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape
2. short bones = cuboidal in shape
= spongy bone with thin coat of compact
bone
e.g.: carpals (wrist), tarsal (ankle) bones

3. flat bones = broad or elongated flat

plates
= for protection & muscle attachments
composition: 2 thin layers of compact tse.
enclosing
a thin layer of spongy bone
e.g.: bones of the skull, sternum, ribs, scapula
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape

4. Irregular bones = all other bones not

assigned to the previous groups

e.g.: vertebrae
pelvic bones
bones of the base of the skull
5. Sesamoid bone -- short bone embedded in a
tendon e.g.: patella
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape

6.Pneumatic bones- flat or irregular bones

possessing a hollow space with in their body,
contains air.

e.g.: ethmoid
maxilla
mastoid part of temporal bone.
7. Accessory bones- (supernumerary) ununited
epiphyses developed from extra centres of
ossification.

e.g.: Sutural bones

Os trigonum.
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to development
1. Membranous = starts as fibrous membrane,
calcium gradually deposited until structure
becomes ossified  intramembranous
ossification

e.g.: bones of the skull, mandible

2. Cartilagenous = starts as cartilage, gradually

ossified
enchondral or intracartilagenous ossification.

e.g.: long bones

2 Types of Bone

Compact bone

Spongy bone
CLASSIFICATION of BONES

• According to structure

1. compact = solid mass; dense & hard

= forms the outer layer of bone
structure
= functional unit --- Haversian system

2. cancellous or spongy = contain spaces

filled with bone marrow
= incomplete Haversian system
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of
compact bone
 Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of
spongy bone Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of
the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
 Arteries
 Supply bone cells Figure 5.2c

with nutrients
Structures of a Long Bone

 Articular cartilage
 Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline
cartilage
 Decreases friction
at joint surfaces Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone

 Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
 Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants Figure 5.2a
Composition of bone matrix
1) Inorganic salts: the hardness of bone
result from the deposition of high
specialized chemical crystal of calcium
& phosphorous called hydroxyapatite,
the process called calcification in
addition to mg, Na, sulphate and
fluoride.
2) Organic substance: collagen fiber &
mixture protein and poly saccarids
called ground substance, provide
support and adhesion between cellular
and fiberous.
 Chondroitin and glucosamine are
required for repair and maintenance of
bone and cartilage.
This bone:
a. Has been demineralized
b. Has had its organic component removed
Types of bone cells
1. Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells found in
all bone surfaces Bone-
building cells.
 Synthesize and secrete

collagen fibers and other

organic components of
bone matrix.
 serve as a framework for

the deposition of calcium

and phosphate calcification
The blue arrows indicate
the osteoblasts. The
yellow arrows indicate the
bone matrix they’ve just
secreted. 74
Types of bone cells
2. Osteoclasts
 Giant multinucleate cells
 Responsible for the active

erosion of bone minerals

 Contain large numbers of

mitochondria and
lysosomes

75
 Types of bone cells
3. Osteocytes—mature, nondividing
osteoblast surrounded by matrix, lying
within lacunae

Ahmad ata 76
Bone Marrow
Specialized type of soft, diffuse connective
tissue; called myeloid tissue
Site for the production of blood cells
Found in medullary cavities of long bones
and in the spaces of spongy bone
Bone Marrow
Two types of marrow are present during a
person’s lifetime:
Red marrow
 Found in virtually all bones in an infant’s or child’s

body
 Functions to produce red blood cells

Yellow marrow
 As an individual ages, red marrow is replaced by
yellow marrow
 Marrow cells become saturated with fat and are no

longer active in blood cell production

Bone Marrow
The main bones in an adult that still
contain red marrow include the ribs,
bodies of the vertebrae, the humerus, the
pelvis, and the femur
Yellow marrow can alter to red marrow
during times of decreased blood supply,
such as with anemia, exposure to
radiation, and certain diseases
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone
 Contains many cylinder-
shaped structural units called
osteons, or Haversian systems
 Four types of structures make
up each osteon:

 Lamella—concentric,
cylinder-shaped layers of
calcified matrix
Lacunae—small spaces
containing tissue fluid in
which bone cells are located
between hard layers of the
lamella

81
Microscopic Structure of
Compact Bone

Canaliculi—ultrasmall
canals radiating in all
directions from the
lacunae and connecting
them to each other and
to the Haversian canal
Haversian canal—
extends lengthwise
through the center of
each osteon and contains
blood vessels and
lymphatic vessels
82
 Microscopic Structure of
Compact Bone

Ahmad ata 83
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian System)
 A unit of bone
 Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Figure 5.3
Changes in the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
hyaline cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints
•Specialized connective tissue
•Rigid, Elastic, Resilient -
RESISTS COMPRESSION
•AVASCULAR –
nutrients diffuse through
matrix
PERICHONDRIUM
Dense irregularly
arranged
connective tissue
(type I collagen)
Ensheaths the
cartilage
Houses the blood
vessels that
nourish
chondrocytes
CHONDROBLAST
Progenitor of
chondrocytes
Lines border
between
perichondrium and
matrix
Secretes type II
collagen and other
components
Chondroblasts build
 CHONDROCYTE
Mature cartilage cell
Reside in a space
called the lacuna
Clear areas = Golgi
and lipid droplets
Chondrocytes
completely fill
their lacunae
RER and
euchromatic N
nuclei RER
Synthetically
active, secrete Cartilage matrix
matrix
 MATRIX
Provides the rigidity,
elasticity, & resilience
FIBERS
 Collagenous and elastic

GROUND SUBSTANCE
 Glycosaminoglycans
(chondroitin sulfates, keratin
sulfate, hyaluronic acid)
 Proteoglycans: GAGs + core
protein
 Water
Basophilic
Territorial matrix - high [ ]
of sulfated proteoglycans
CARTILAGE GROWTH
Appositional
Increasing in
WIDTH;
chondroblasts
deposit matrix on
surface of pre-
existing cartilage

Interstitial
Increasing in
LENGTH;
chondrocytes
divide and secrete
matrix from w/in
lacunae
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE

ELASTIC

FIBROUS
HYALINE CARTILAGE
FUNCTION
 Support tissue and organs
 Model for bone
development
MATRIX
 Type II collagen (thin
fibrils)
 Chondroitin sulfate,
keratin sulfate, hyaluronic
acid
 Water
LOCATION
 Tracheal rings, nasal
septum, larynx, articular
surfaces of joints
 ELASTIC CARTILAGE
FUNCTION
 Support with flexibility
MATRIX
 Normal components of
hyaline matrix plus
ELASTIC fibers
LOCATION
 External ear, external
auditory canal, epiglottis
perichondrium
STAINS
 Elastic fibers stain BLACK
with Weigert stain
 FIBROCARTILAGE

n van Giesen Elastic stain - fibrocartilage - reddish b

hyaline cartilage - yello
FIBROCARTILAGE
FUNCTION
Support with great
tensile strength
MATRIX
Type I collagen -
Oriented parallel to
stress plane
LOCATION
Intervertebral disks,
pubic symphysis
FIBROCARTILAGE
Chondrocytes align
between collagen
fibers
Collagen fibers lie
parallel to lines of
stress
Bone Growth

 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long

bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage
Bone Growth

 Bones are remodeled and lengthened

until growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width
Long Bone Formation and Growth

Figure 5.4a
Bone Fractures
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
 Greenstick- frays, hard to repair, breaks like a green
twig
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
 Realignment of the bone
Common Fractures
greenstick fracture
= the bone does not
break all of the way
through.
simple, or closed
= when the bone breaks
but the skin does not.
compound, or open
= when the broken bone
tears through the skin,
introducing the
dangerous possibility of
infection.
The area around a break
swells and discolors, but
some fractures can be
detected only by X-ray.
The weakened bones of
the elderly are
especially susceptible to
fractures.
Common Types of Fractures
Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
formed
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
form a callus
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a
bony callus
 Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
 Diseases and
Conditions
of the Skeletal
System
Arthritis
Bursitis
 Inflammation of the Bursa (fluid filled sac
surrounding the joint).
A bursa can become inflamed from injury,
infection (rare in the shoulder), or due to an
underlying rheumatic condition.
Bursitis is typically identified by localized
pain or swelling, tenderness, and pain with
motion of the tissues in the affected area.
Tendonitis
Sometimes the tendons become inflamed
for a variety of reasons, and the action of
pulling the muscle becomes irritating. If
the normal smooth gliding motion of your
tendon is impaired, the tendon will
become inflamed and movement will
become painful. This is called
tendonitis, and literally means
inflammation of the tendon.
The most common cause of tendonitis is
overuse.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Any condition that causes swelling or a
change in position of the tissue within the
carpal tunnel can squeeze and irritate the
median nerve. Irritation of the median nerve
in this manner causes tingling and numbness
of the thumb, index, and the middle fingers, a
condition known as "carpal tunnel syndrome."
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a term that means
"porous bones."
Skeletal disease affecting women & men.
 Osteoporosis is a condition in which
bones have lost minerals especially
calcium ﾑ making them weaker, more
brittle, and susceptible to fractures
(broken bones).
Any bone in the body can be affected by
osteoporosis, but the most common places
where fractures occur are the back
(spine), hips, and wrists.
Scoliosis
Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of
the spine. If your child has scoliosis, the
view from behind may reveal one or
more abnormal curves.Scoliosis runs in
families, but doctors often don't know
the cause. More girls than boys have
severe scoliosis. Adult scoliosis may be a
worsening of a condition that began in
childhood, but wasn't diagnosed or
treated. In other cases, scoliosis may
result from a degenerative joint
condition in the spine.
Kyphosis
With kyphosis, your spine may look normal
or you may develop a hump. Kyphosis can
occur as a result of developmental
problems; degenerative diseases, such as
arthritis of the spine; osteoporosis with
compression fractures of the vertebrae; or
trauma to the spine. It can affect children,
adolescents and adults.
Lordosis
A normal spine, when viewed from behind
appears straight. However, a spine affected
by lordosis shows evidence of a curvature of
the back bones (vertebrae) in the lower back
area, giving the child a "swayback"
appearance.
Rickets
Rickets is the softening and weakening of
bones in children, usually because of an
extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
Some skeletal deformities caused by rickets
may need corrective surgery.
Bone Deformation
Rickets can result from
insufficient vitamin D in the
diet or from insufficient
amounts of ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
It can lead to skeletal
deformation, such as
vertebral or leg curvature.
Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a serious condition that occurs
when the body produces too much of the
hormones that control growth. ･ The hormone
most often affected is called growth hormone,
or GH. It ﾊ is produced by the pituitary gland, a
tiny organ at the base of the brain. ･･ Growth
hormone ﾊ promotes growth of bone, cartilage,
muscle, organs, and other tissues. ･･ When
there is too much growth hormone in the body,
these tissues grow larger than normal. This
excessive growth can cause serious disease
and even premature death.
Spina Bifida
Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves
the incomplete development of the spinal
cord or its coverings. The term spina
bifida comes from Latin and literally
means "split" or "open" spine.Spina bifida
occurs at the end of the first month of
pregnancy when the two sides of the ﾊ
embryo's spine fail to join together,
leaving an open area. In some cases, the
spinal cord or other membranes may
push through this opening in the back.
The condition usually is ﾊ detected before
a baby is born and treated right away.
Talipes Equinovarus-
“Clubfoot”
Clubfoot is a deformity of the whole foot
that is present at birth. There are several
types of clubfoot that are jointly known as
'talipes', as the deformity is mostly in the
talus (a bone in the ankle). The most
common of the talipes is what is known as
"talipes equino varus" - it is so common
that the word clubfoot is commonly used to
refer to this. In talipes equino varus, the
child is born with the foot pointing down
and twisted inwards at the ankle.
Sarcoma
Osteosarcoma-The most common type of
bone cancer. It arises in bone and is most
commonly found in children and adolescents
but a rare form occurs in adults, particularly in
patients who have been cured of other
cancers with radiation therapy.
Myeloma
Multiple myeloma is a cancer in which abnormal
cells collect in the bone marrow and form tumors.
Sometimes these abnormal cells (called myeloma
cells) collect in only one bone and form a single
tumor known as a plasmacytoma. However, in
most cases, the myeloma cells collect in many
bones, forming several tumors and causing other
problems. When this happens, the disease is
called multiple myeloma.
Leukemia
Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. It starts
in the bone marrow, the soft tissue inside most
bones. Bone marrow is where blood cells are
made.When you are healthy, your bone
marrow makes: ･ White blood cells, which help
your body fight infection. ･ Red blood cells,
which carry oxygen to all parts of your body. ･
Platelets, which help your blood clot.When you
have leukemia, the bone marrow starts to
make a lot of abnormal white blood cells,
called leukemia cells. They don't do the work of
normal white blood cells, they grow faster than
normal cells, and they don't stop growing when
they should.
Bone Marrow Biopsy