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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Data
communication
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What is Data Communication?

• The word data refers to information presented in whatever

form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communication:- is the exchange of data between two or

more devices using some form of wired or wireless

transmission medium.
• Data communication is the process of transferring messages

from one point to another.

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Cont.…
• Electronic communications, like emails and instant messages, as

well as phone calls are examples of data communications.

• A communication system can be defined as the collection of

hardware and software that facilitates intersystem exchange of

information between different devices.
• When we communicate, we are sharing information.
• This sharing can be local (face-to-face communication ) or it
may be remote or (communication over distance or
telecommunication).
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Components of data communication

• A data communication system is made up of five components.
Message:- The message is the information (data) to be
communicated.
 It can consist of text, numbers, pictures, sound, or video- or any
combination of these.
Sender:- The Sender is the device that sends the data message.
Receiver:- The Receiver is the device that receives the data
message.
Medium:-The transmission Medium is the physical path by
which a message travels form sender to receiver.
A Protocol:- is a set of rules that govern data communication.
It represents an agreement between the communication devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
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Characteristics of Data Communication

• Delivery:-The system must deliver data to the correct
destination.
• Accuracy:- The system must deliver data accurately.

• Timeliness:-The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

Data delivered late are useless.

• Jitter:- Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
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Cont…
• Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is
to be taken based on that interpretation?
• For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or
the final destination of the message?
• Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
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Data Representation
• Data representation is the method by which information is
structured and stored in digital systems.
• In the age of data-driven decision-making, understanding how
data is represented is critical to ensuring
• Accuracy
• Efficiency
• usability.
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Data Representation
• Data representation lays the foundation for all forms of
computation, as it enables computers to process and manipulate
data in a structured way.
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Data transmission
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Data transmission

Analog data/signal and digital data/signal

• Analog Signal: - The transfer of data in the form of electrical

signals or continuous waves.

Example: Human voice, Thermometer, Analog phones etc.
• Digital Signal:-Data transmission between computers is in the

form of digits (binary digits 0 & 1)

Example : Computers, Digital Phones, Digital pens, etc.
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Analog data/ signal to digital data/ signal conversion

Data to signal conversion

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Techniques Of Data Communication

• There are two possible techniques of sending data from the sender

to receiver, i.e. parallel and serial transmission.

• Parallel Transmission

• Each bit of character / data has a separate channel and all bits of a

character are transmitted simultaneously.

• Parallel devices have a wider data bus than serial devices and can

therefore transfer data in words of one or more bytes at a time.

• As a result, there is a speedup in parallel transmission bit rate

over serial transmission bit rate.

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Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission, the data is sent as one bit at a time having a

single channel for all the bit.

• Each bit is sent over a single wire, one after the other
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Modes of Data Communication

• There are three ways or modes for transmitting data from one
location to another.
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Simplex Mode
• In simplex mode, data is transmitted in only one direction.

• A terminal can only send data and cannot receive it or it can

only receive data but cannot send it.

• simplex states that information can only be broadcast in one

direction, at one time.

Data
Sender Receiver
One way
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Half Duplex
• In half duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions
but only in one direction at a time.
• Messages can flow in two directions in a half-duplex type, but
never at the same time.
• When one node is transmitting the other can only receiving and
vice versa.
• In other words it can be said that at a single time, the
transmission of data are done in only one direction.

Sender Message Receiver

Two way but not

simultaneous
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Full Duplex
• In full mode, data can be transmitted in both directions

simultaneously.
• It consists of two simplex channels, a forward channel and a
backward (reverse) channel, linking at the same points.

Data
sender Receiver

Two way and

simultaneous
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.
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Switching techniques
• These are techniques which are used to establish communication

links between data, source and receiver in a communication

network.
• There are three forms of switching techniques:-

• Circuit switching

• Packet switching

• Message switching
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Circuit Switching
• In circuit switching, a connection is established between two
network nodes before they begin transmitting data.
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends until the
connection is terminated.
• A circuit-switching network defines a static path from one point
to another.
• As long as the two points are connected, all data traveling
between those two points will take the same path.
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Phases in Circuit Switching

• Connection Establishment Phase
• Data Transfer Phase
• Connection Release Phase

• E.g. Telephone line

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Message switching
• In message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path
between two stations.
• It is also called as Store and forward technology.
• The information is stored and forwarded from the second device
after a connection between that device and a third device on the
path is established.
• In this technique a node receive a message and store the message
until the free and appropriate route is found and if found then send
it otherwise stored it.
• Message switching requires that each device in the data’s path has
sufficient memory and processing power to accept and store the
information before passing it to the next node.
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Packet Switching
• It can work in both connection oriented and connectionless.
• Packet switching breaks data into packets before they are
transported.
• Packets can travel any path on the network to their destination,
because each packet contains the destination address and
sequencing information.
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Cont…
• There are three different ways in which packets can be
addressed:
• Unicast: packet is addressed to a single destination
• Multicast: packet is addressed simultaneously to multiple
destinations
• Broadcast: packet is sent simultaneously to all stations on
the network.
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Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing
• sending multiple signals or streams of information over a
communications link at the same time in the form of a single and
complex signal.
• the receiver recovers the separate signals, a process called
demultiplexing.
• It combine multiple communication signals together in order for them
to traverse an otherwise single signal communication medium
simultaneously.
• Multiplexing can be applied to both analog and digital signals.
• A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer
(MUX),
• device that performs the reverse process is called
a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).
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Cont…
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Transmission Impairments
• The signal received may differ from the signal transmitted.
• In the data communication system, analog and digital signals go
through the transmission medium.
• Transmission media are not ideal. ... So, the signals sent through
the transmission medium are also not perfect. This imperfection
cause signal impairment.
• There are three types of transmission impairments: attenuation,
delay distortion, and noise.
•
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Cont…
• Attenuation
• It means loss of energy.
• The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which
causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium.
• Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which
gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.
• Distortion
• It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.
• This is generally seen in composite signals made up with
different frequencies.
• Noise
• The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original
signal
• It is the interference of another source of signals
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Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

• Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject
to unpredictable changes because of interference.
• This interference can change the shape of the signal.
• In a single-bit error, a 0 is changed to a 1 or a 1 to a 0. The
term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit
(such as a byte, character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.
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Cont..
• The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit
have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
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Cont..
• Error detection
• the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments
during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Error correction
• the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original, error-
free data.
• Note: error detection and correction is not 100% reliable.
• The most commonly used error detection and correction techniques
is redundancy.
• It detects the errors by adding some extra bits to the actual data.
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Cont…
• There are 4-types of redundancy techniques
1.Simple Parity Check
• a redundant bit called a parity bit is added to every data unit so that
the total number of 1’s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes
even (or odd).
• 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
• 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s
• This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is
called even parity checking.
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Cont…
2. Two-Dimensional Parity Check
• a block of bits is organized in a table (rows and columns).
• First calculate the parity bit for each data unit in both dimensions .
• Then organize them into a table*
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Cont…
3. Checksum
• The data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
• Then add all the k segments
• Add carry bits if any.
• The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
• The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
• At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added
including the checksum to get the sum.
• The sum is complemented.
• If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded.
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Cont…
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Cont…
4. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
• Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is
based on binary division.
• In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic
redundancy check bits, are appended to the end of data unit
so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a
second, predetermined binary number.
• At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the
same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data
unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
• A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in
transit and therefore must be rejected.
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Cont…
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Cont…
• Exercise
• Check the given data using two dimensional check and answer whether the
receiver accept the data or not. The data which is delivered to destination are
101011 110101 110000 101110
• Generate the checksum and detect the error for the message
110111011111110000101010
• Generate the CRC code at the sender side and detect the error at the receiver side
for the message 1000100 using the CRC generator x3+X2+1

• Error correction can be handled in two ways

• Backward error correction
• Once the error is discovered the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the
entire data unit
• Forwarded error correction
• The receiver uses the error correcting code which automatically corrects the
errors.
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Cont…
• Home study
• Types of multiplexing
• How the detected data is corrected?
• Hamming code (forwarded)
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Computer network
Computer network
• A computer network is an interconnection of two or more

computers that are able to exchange information.

• The computer may be connected via any data communication

link, like copper wires, radio links, etc.

• They may be personal computers or large main frames.

• The computer network may be located in a room, building, city,

country, or anywhere in the world.

Applications of network
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Network Criteria
• networks form the backbone of communication, data transfer,
and computational power across systems.
• Whether for small organizations or large global corporations,
understanding network criteria is essential to ensure efficient,
secure, and resilient networks.
• Network criteria define the parameters and standards that
networks must meet to perform effectively, which include
aspects such as performance, reliability, scalability, and
security.
• In this chapter, we will delve into each of these criteria,
exploring the standards and configurations necessary to design
and maintain robust networks.
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Network Criteria
Performance
• Performance in a network refers to the effectiveness of data
transfer between devices within the network.
• This criterion is often evaluated by considering factors like
throughput and latency.
Reliability
• Network reliability is crucial for ensuring continuous operation
without interruptions.
• It measures how often a network remains operational and its
capacity to maintain connections and data flow without failure
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Network Criteria
Scalability
• Scalability is the ability of a network to grow and expand
efficiently without performance loss.
• networks need to accommodate more devices, users, and data.
• Scalable networks are designed to be flexible, allowing for easy
integration of new resources.
Security
• Network security is a primary criterion, focusing on protecting
data and systems from unauthorized access, attacks, and data
breaches.
• Security mechanisms include firewalls, intrusion detection
systems, encryption, and multi-factor authentication.
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Network Criteria
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can be
transferred across a network at a given time.
• High bandwidth ensures that large amounts of data can be
transmitted efficiently, reducing the likelihood of bottlenecks.
Bandwidth requirements vary depending on the application;
Availability
• Network availability is a measure of the percentage of time a
network is operational and accessible to users.
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Network Criteria
Fault Tolerance
• Fault tolerance is a network's ability to continue operating in the
event of a component failure.
Throughput
• Throughput represents the actual rate at which data is
successfully transmitted through a network.
Quality of Service (QoS)
• QoS refers to managing network resources to ensure a certain
level of performance for different applications and users.
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Types of network
Types of network
• Networks are categorized based on the geographical area they
cover and their architecture.
• Based on the geographical area they cover
• PAN
• LAN
• MAN
• WAN
• Based on their architecture
• Peer-to-peer
• Client-server
Based on geographical area they cover
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• PAN is a network for interconnecting electronic devices within
an individual person’s workplace.
• It provides data transmission among devices such as computers,
smartphones, tablets.
LAN (Local Area Networks)
• LAN is a computer network widely used for local
communication.
• LAN connects computers in a small area like a room, office,
building or a campus spread up to a few kilometers.
• They are privately owned networks, to exchange information.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• MAN is a computer network spread over a city.
• The computers in a MAN are connected using cables.
• MAN connects several LAN spread over a city.
• Example- connection between branches
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
• WAN is a network that connects computers over long distances
like cities, countries, continents or world wide.
• WAN uses public, leased, or private communication links to
spread over long distances.
• WAN uses telephone lines, satellite link and radio link to connect.
• Using INTERNET in public network is a common example of
WAN.
Based on their architecture
Peer to peer network
• Two or more PCs share files and access to devices such as
printers without requiring a separate server computer or server
software.
Client-server network
• Where client request for a service to a server and server replies
according to client request.
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Network Components
 Network Components
• Computer networks contains both physical or hardware and software
components.
• The software components are operating systems and protocols.
• The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission medium
and connecting devices.
• Network devices are the devices that interconnect networks. Because these
devices connect network entities they are known as connecting devices. These
devices include:
• NIC
• Hub
• Repeater
• Switch
• Bridge
• Router
• Gateway
 NIC/ network interface card
• NIC provides the physical interface between computer and
cabling.
• It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can
also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to
understand.
Hub
• A hub is a multiport connecting device that is used to
interconnect LAN devices.
• A hub can be used to extend the physical length of a network.
• Note: A hub just repeats all the data received on any port to all
the other ports; thus, hubs are also known as repeaters.
Switch
• It interconnects different devices for sharing data
• It receives incoming data packets and redirects them to their
destination on a local area network (LAN).
Repeater
• Repeater boost or amplifies the signal before passing it through
to the next section of cable.
• used to an extended geographical or topological network
boundary
Bridges
• It connects the network with same protocol and topology.
• The main task of a bridge computer is to receive and pass data
from one LAN to another.
Routers
• A router is a device that connects multiple networks using
similar or different protocols.
• Routers are used when several networks are connected together.
Gateway
• Gateway is a device that connects two or more networks with
different types of protocol.
• It receives data from one network and converts it according to
the protocol of other network.
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Network Topology
Network Topology
• It is the physical way in which computers are interconnected.
• Five basic network physical structures are :
• Bus topology
• Ring topology
• Star topology
• Mesh topology
• Hybrid topology
Bus topology
• It consists of a single cable called a trunk (also called a
backbone or segment) that connects all of the computers in the
network in a single line.
• In Bus topology a single network cable runs in the building or
campus and all nodes are linked along with this communication
line with two endpoints called the bus or backbone.
• This structure is very popular for local area networks
Ring topology
• In Ring topology the network cable passes from one node to
another until all nodes are connected in the form of a “loop or
ring”.
• Transmits in only one direction.
Star topology
• Devices are connected to a central device
• Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the
hub to all computers on the network.
• Because each computer is connected to a central point, this
topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network
installation.
Mesh topology
• In mesh network, there is random connection of nodes using
communication links.
• Mesh topology is the general topology for wide area network.
• A mesh network may be fully connected or connected with only
partial links.
Hybrid topology
• Mixture of two different topologies.
• This combination of topologies is done according to the
requirements of the organization.
• The combined topologies must be different eg. Star-bus or star-
ring
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Transmission Media
Transmission Media
• Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information
from sender to receiver.
• We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.
• Transmission media is also called Communication channel.
Guided and Unguided Transmission Media
 Guided / Wired Transmission Media
• Another name of Wire Transmission Media is called Bound
Transmission Media or Guided Transmission Media.
• Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or
have physical existence and are limited by the physical
geography.
• Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable,
co-axial cable and fiber optical cable.
• Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission
speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost etc.
Twisted Pair Cable
• Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two
conductors of a single circuit are twisted together for the
purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources;
• Twisted pair cables are quite literally a pair of insulated wires
that are twisted together to help reduce noise from outside
sources.
• Most common transmission wires because of good performance at
low cost.
Cont..
• There are two type of twisted pair cable:
• Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
• Shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)
Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
• UTP is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast
becoming the most popular LAN cabling.
• Unshielded means no additional shielding like meshes or
aluminum foil.
• Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local-
area networks (LANs) and telephone connections.
• UTP cabling does not offer a high bandwidth.
• The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters.
Connectors
Registered jack (RJ)
• The most common UTP connector is A registered jack (RJ).
• A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized network interface used
for network cabling, wiring and jack construction.
• The primary function of registered jacks is to connect different
data equipment and telecommunication devices with services
normally provided by telephone exchanges or long-distance
carriers.
• Most commonly used RJ
are RJ 11 and RJ 45
Registered Jack - 11
• More commonly known as a modem port, phone connector,
phone jack or phone line, the Registered Jack-11 (RJ-11) is a
for telephone and Modem connectors.
• RJ-11 is a common connector for plugging a telephone into the
wall and the handset into the telephone.
• It is found in houses and offices where old telephone-wired
systems are connected with the ISP's line.
• It has 2, 4 or 6 pins (contacts)
Registered Jack - 45
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for
registered jack).
• RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables.
• The most common twisted-pair connector is an 8-position, 8-
contact (8P8C) modular plug and jack commonly referred to as
an RJ45 connector.
Cont..
• RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable
interface electrically.
• Each RJ45 connector has eight pins, which means an RJ45 cable
contains eight separate wires.
• RJ45 cables can be wired in two different ways. One version is called
T-568A and the other is T-568B.
T-568A
1. White/Green (Receive )
2. Green (Receive )
3. White/Orange (Transmit )
4. Blue
5. White/Blue
6. Orange (Transmit )
7. White/Brown
8. Brown
T-568B
1. White/Orange
2. Orange
3. White/Green
4. Blue
5. White/Blue
6. Green
7. White/Brown
8. Brown
• The T-568B wiring scheme is by far the most common, though many
devices support the T-568A wiring scheme as well.
• Some networking applications require a crossover cable, which has a
T-568A connector on one end and a T-568B connector on the other.
• This type of cable is typically used for direct computer-to-computer
connections when there is no router, hub, or switch available.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Include two individual wires covered with a foil shielding,
which prevents electromagnetic interference, thereby
transporting data faster.
• STP is similar to unshielded twisted pair (UTP); however, it
contains an extra foil wrapping or copper braid jacket to help
shield the cable signals from interference.
• STP cables are costlier when compared to UTP, but has the
advantage of being capable of supporting higher transmission
rates across longer distances.
• The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects the
transmission line from electromagnetic interference leaking into
or out of the cable.
Cont..
• Mostly used in large industry with high electromagnetic
interference.
Coaxial cables
• consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a
braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.
• has high bandwidths and greater transmission capacity.
• used to connect their TVs to a cable TV service and used in
networks and what allow a broadband cable Internet connection
using a cable modem.
Fiber optics cable
• contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather than
copper wire.
• Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light
pulses rather than electrical pulses.
• The light signals do not travel at the speed light because of the
denser glass layers, instead traveling about 30% slower than the
speed of light.
• It is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission
because of the purity of the signal and lack of signal
attenuation.
Cont..
Unguided / Wireless Transmission Media
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using
a physical conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device that is capable of
receiving them.
Wireless LAN
• Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing
technologies.
• The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is
increasing everywhere.
• It is a wireless computer network that links two or more devises
using a wireless communication to form a local area network
(LAN).
• Wireless LANs can be found in college campuses, in office
buildings.
Radio Communication
• Uses electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths.
• Used for communication; television, and radios etc.
• All receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical
vibrations in the speaker to create sound waves that can be
heard.
• Used as a multicast data transmission. there is one sender but
many receivers. FM radio, television,
Microwave Communication
• Used for long-distance telephone service. It uses radio
frequency for signal transmissions.
• The microwave band is well suited for wireless transmission of
signals having large bandwidth.
• Microwaves are unidirectional that means the communication is
point to point.
• When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned.
• Eg. Used for Television distribution, Long-distance telephone
transmission and Private business networks
Cont..
Infrared Communication
• The frequency of light that is not visible to human eyes.
• Infrared can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared communication requires a transceiver (a combination
of transmitter and receiver) in both devices that communicate.
• It has high frequencies, shorter wavelengths and cannot
penetrate walls.
• Eg. Remote controls for TVs
Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that is used to connect
computers, tablets, smartphones and other devices to the
internet.
• It uses radio waves to transmit data from your wireless router to
your Wi-Fi enabled devices such as Smartphones, tablets,
computers.
Bluetooth Technology
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect
devices of different functions such as telephones, notebooks,
computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee
makers, and so on.
• A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large.
• Bluetooth technology has several applications.
• Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can
communicate with the computer through this technology.
• Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in
a small health care center.
Cont..
• Home security devices can use this technology to connect
different sensors to the main security controller.
• Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers
at a conference.
Satellite communication
• Satellite communication is a special use of microwave
transmission system.
• The ground station consists of a satellite dish that functions as
an antenna and communication equipment to transmit (called
Uplink) and receive (called Downlink) data from satellites
passing overhead.
• Satellites are especially used for remote locations, which are
difficult to reach with wired infrastructure.
• Hence it always stays over the same point with respect to the
earth.
• This allows the ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed point
in the sky.
Cont..
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Protocols and standards

• For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol.
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
• Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
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Standards
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and
in international communications.
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and

competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in

guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes.
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THANK YOU!!!