CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

 To provide a grand tour of the major operating

systems components

 To provide coverage of basic computer system

organization
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Distributed Systems
 Special-Purpose Systems
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

 A program that acts as an intermediary

between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware

 Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 COMPUTER SYSTEM STRUCTURE

 Computer system can be divided into four

components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
 Applicationprograms – define the ways in which
the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
FOUR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
WHAT OPERATING SYSTEMS DO

 Depends on the point of view: user and system

 Users want convenience, ease of use
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or
minicomputer must keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations

have dedicated resources but frequently use shared

resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for

usability and battery life

 Some computers have little or no user interface, such

as embedded computers in devices and automobiles

 OPERATING SYSTEM DEFINITION

 System view
 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use
 computer system has many resources that may be required to
solve a problem: CPU time, memory space, file-storage space, I/0
devices, and so on. The operating system acts as the manager of
these resources

 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of
the computer
 It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.
 Operating systems exist because they offer a
reasonable way to solve the problem of creating a
usable computing system.
 The fundamental goal of computer systems is to
execute user programs and to make solving user
problems easier.
 Toward this goal, computer hardware is constructed.
Since bare hardware alone is not particularly easy to
use, application programs are developed.
 These programs require certain common operations,
such as those controlling the II 0 devices. The
common functions of controlling and allocating
resources are then brought together into one piece
of software: the operating system.
 OPERATING SYSTEM DEFINITION (CONT.)

 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an

operating system” is good approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel.
 Everything else is either a system program (ships
with the operating system) or an application program.
 system program :which are associated with the
operating system but are not part of the kernel
 application program :which include all programs not
associated with the operation of the system.
COMPUTER STARTUP

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or

reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
STORAGE-DEVICE HIERARCHY
 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE

 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in

which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each
job while it is running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 CPU scheduling
If several jobs ready to run at the same time 
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and
out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely
in memory
MEMORY LAYOUT FOR MULTIPROGRAMMED SYSTEM
OPERATING-SYSTEM OPERATIONS
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or
trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the operating
system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself
and other system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable
in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it
to user
TRANSITION FROM USER TO KERNEL
MODE

 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging

resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control
or terminate program that exceeds allotted time
SYSTEM CALLS:
 PROCESS MANAGEMENT

 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work

within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an
active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
 PROCESS MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system

processes
 Suspending and resuming processes

 Providing mechanisms for process

synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process

communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 MEMORY MANAGEMENT
 All data in memory before and after processing
 All instructions in memory in order to execute
 Memory management determines what is in memory
when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to
users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 STORAGE MANAGEMENT
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate,
access method (sequential or random)
 File-System management
 A file is a collection of related information defined by its
creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both source and
object forms) and data.
 Data files may be numeric, alphabetic, alphanumeric, or
binary. Files may be free-form (for example, text files), or they
may be formatted rigidly (for example, fixed fields).
 Clearly, the concept of a file is an extremely general one.
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
 MASS-STORAGE MANAGEMENT
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in
main memory or data that must be kept for a “long”
period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and
RW (read-write)
PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS LEVELS OF
STORAGE

 Movement between levels of storage

hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
I/O SUBSYSTEM

 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of

hardware devices from the user

 I/O subsystem responsible for

 Memory management of I/O including buffering
(storing data temporarily while it is being
transferred), caching (storing parts of data in
faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other
jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices
PROTECTION AND SECURITY
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal
and external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to
determine who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that
user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated with
each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective
ID with more rights
DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING

 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous,

systems networked together
 Network is a communications path
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Network Operating System provides features

between systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
 Illusion of a single system
SPECIAL-PURPOSE SYSTEMS

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form

of computers
 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose
OS, real-time OS
 Multimedia systems
 Streams of data must be delivered according to time
restrictions
 Handheld systems
 PDAs,smart phones, limited CPU, memory, power
 Reduced feature set OS, limited I/O
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
 Traditional computer
 Blurring over time
 Office environment
 PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to

mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and

timesharing
 Now portals allowing networked and remote systems

access to same resources

 Home networks
 Used to be single system, then modems

 Now firewalled, networked

 COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS (CONT.)
 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
 Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e., database)
 File-server provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files
PEER-TO-PEER COMPUTING

 Another model of distributed system

 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers

 Insteadall nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central lookup service on
network, or
 Broadcast request for service and respond to requests

for service via discovery protocol

 Examples include Napster and Gnutella
WEB-BASED COMPUTING

 Web has become ubiquitous

 PCs most prevalent devices
 More devices becoming networked to allow
web access
 New category of devices to manage web
traffic among similar servers: load balancers
 Use of operating systems like Windows 95,
client-side, have evolved into Linux and
Windows XP, which can be clients and servers