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Class 4

The document provides an overview of GnuPG (GNU Privacy Guard), detailing its functionality for secure communication and data storage using public-key cryptography. It also discusses hash functions, their applications in security, and specific algorithms like MD5 and SHA, highlighting their properties and differences. Additionally, it outlines the requirements for secure hash functions and the processes involved in generating and verifying digital signatures.

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Vinodpuri Gosavi
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27 views32 pages

Class 4

The document provides an overview of GnuPG (GNU Privacy Guard), detailing its functionality for secure communication and data storage using public-key cryptography. It also discusses hash functions, their applications in security, and specific algorithms like MD5 and SHA, highlighting their properties and differences. Additionally, it outlines the requirements for secure hash functions and the processes involved in generating and verifying digital signatures.

Uploaded by

Vinodpuri Gosavi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Outline

• Project 1

• Hash functions and its application on


security
• Modern cryptographic hash functions and
message digest
– MD5
– SHA
GNU Privacy Guard

Yao Zhao
Introduction of GnuPG
• GnuPG Stands for GNU Privacy Guard
• A tool for secure communication and data
storage
• To encrypt data and create digital
signatures
• Using public-key cryptography
• Distributed in almost every Linux
• For T-lab machines --- gpg command
Functionality of GnuPG
• Generating a new keypair
– gpg -- gen-key
• Key type
– (1) DSA and ElGamal (default)

– (2) DSA (sign only)

– (4) ElGamal (sign and encrypt)

• Key size
– DSA: between 512 and 1024 bits->1024 bits

– ElGamal: any size

• Expiration date: key does not expire


• User ID
• Passphrase
Functionality of GnuPG
• Generating a revocation certificate
– gpg --output revoke.asc --gen-revoke yourkey
• Exporting a public key
– gpg --output alice.gpg --export [email protected]
– gpg --armor --export [email protected]
• Importing a public key
– gpg --import blake.gpg
– gpg --list-keys
– gpg --edit-key [email protected]
• fpr
• sign
• check
Functionality of GnuPG
• Encrypting and decrypting documents
– gpg --output doc.gpg --encrypt --recipient [email protected]
doc
– gpg --output doc --decypt doc.gpg

• Making and verifying signatures


– gpg --output doc.sig --sign doc
– gpg --output doc --decrypt doc.sig

• Detached signatures
– gpg --output doc.sig --detach-sig doc
– gpg --verify doc.sig doc
Questions?
Outline
• Project 1
• Change of class time on 1/30: 4:30-
5:50pm ?

• Hash functions and its application on


security
• Modern cryptographic hash functions and
message digest
– MD5
– SHA
Hash Functions
• Condenses arbitrary message to fixed size
h = H(M)
• Usually assume that the hash function is
public and not keyed
• Hash used to detect changes to message
• Can use in various ways with message
• Most often to create a digital signature
Hash Functions & Digital
Signatures
Requirements for Hash Functions

1. Can be applied to any sized message M


2. Produces fixed-length output h
3. Is easy to compute h=H(M) for any message M
4. Given h is infeasible to find x s.t. H(x)=h
• One-way property
5. Given x is infeasible to find y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
• Weak collision resistance
6. Is infeasible to find any x,y s.t. H(y)=H(x)
• Strong collision resistance
Birthday Problem
• How many people do you need so that the probability of
having two of them share the same birthday is > 50% ?
• Random sample of n birthdays (input) taken from k (365,
output)
• kn total number of possibilities
• (k)n=k(k-1)…(k-n+1) possibilities without duplicate
birthday
• Probability of no repetition:
– p = (k)n/kn  1 - n(n-1)/2k
• For k=366, minimum n = 23
• n(n-1)/2 pairs, each pair has a probability 1/k of having the
same output
• n(n-1)/2k > 50%  n>k1/2
How Many Bits for Hash?
• m bits, takes 2m/2 to find two with the
same hash
• 64 bits, takes 232 messages to search
(doable)
• Need at least 128 bits
Using Hash for
Authentication
• Alice to Bob: challenge rA
• Bob to Alice: MD(KAB|rA)
• Bob to Alice: rB
• Alice to Bob: MD(KAB|rB)
• Only need to compare MD results
Using Hash to Encrypt

• One-time pad with KAB


– Compute bit streams using MD, and K
• b1=MD(KAB), bi=MD(KAB|bi-1), …

  with message blocks


– Is this a real one-time pad ?
– Add a random 64 bit number (aka IV)
b1=MD(KAB|IV), bi=MD(KAB|bi-1), …
General Structure of Secure Hash
Code

• Iterative compression function


– Each f is collision-resistant, so is the resulting hashing
MD5: Message Digest Version
5
input Message

Output 128 bits Digest

• Until recently the most widely used hash


algorithm
– in recent times have both brute-force & cryptanalytic
concerns
• Specified as Internet standard RFC1321
MD5 Overview
MD5 Overview
1. Pad message so its length is 448 mod 512
2. Append a 64-bit original length value to
message
3. Initialise 4-word (128-bit) MD buffer (A,B,C,D)
4. Process message in 16-word (512-bit) blocks:
– Using 4 rounds of 16 bit operations on message
block & buffer
– Add output to buffer input to form new buffer
value
5. Output hash value is the final buffer value
Processing of Block mi - 4
Passes
mi MDi

ABCD=fF(ABCD,mi,T[1..16])
A B C D
ABCD=fG(ABCD,mi,T[17..32])

ABCD=fH(ABCD,mi,T[33..48])

ABCD=fI(ABCD,mi,T[49..64])

+ + + +
MD i+1
Padding Twist
• Given original message M, add padding
bits “10*” such that resulting length is 64
bits less than a multiple of 512 bits.
• Append (original length in bits mod 264),
represented in 64 bits to the padded
message
• Final message is chopped 512 bits a block
MD5 Process
• As many stages as the number of 512-bit
blocks in the final padded message
• Digest: 4 32-bit words: MD=A|B|C|D
• Every message block contains 16 32-bit
words: m0|m1|m2…|m15
– Digest MD0 initialized to:
A=01234567,B=89abcdef,C=fedcba98,
D=76543210
– Every stage consists of 4 passes over the
message block, each modifying MD
• Each block 4 rounds, each round 16 steps
Different Passes...
Each step i (1 <= i <= 64):
• Input:
– mi – a 32-bit word from the message
With different shift every round
– Ti – int(232 * abs(sin(i)))
Provided a randomized set of 32-bit patterns, which
eliminate any regularities in the input data
– ABCD: current MD
• Output:
– ABCD: new MD
MD5 Compression Function
• Each round has 16 steps of the form:
a = b+((a+g(b,c,d)+X[k]+T[i])<<<s)
• a,b,c,d refer to the 4 words of the buffer,
but used in varying permutations
– note this updates 1 word only of the buffer
– after 16 steps each word is updated 4 times
• where g(b,c,d) is a different nonlinear
function in each round (F,G,H,I)
MD5 Compression Function
Functions and Random
Numbers
• F(x,y,z) == (xy)(~x  z)
– selection function
• G(x,y,z) == (x  z) (y ~ z)
• H(x,y,z) == xy z
• I(x,y,z) == y(x  ~z)
Secure Hash Algorithm
• Developed by NIST, specified in the Secure
Hash Standard (SHS, FIPS Pub 180), 1993
• SHA is specified as the hash algorithm in
the Digital Signature Standard (DSS), NIST
General Logic
• Input message must be < 264 bits
– not really a problem
• Message is processed in 512-bit blocks
sequentially
• Message digest is 160 bits
• SHA design is similar to MD5, a little
slower, but a lot stronger
Basic Steps
Step1: Padding
Step2: Appending length as 64 bit unsigned
Step3: Initialize MD buffer 5 32-bit words
Store in big endian format, most significant bit in low
address
A|B|C|D|E
A = 67452301
B = efcdab89
C = 98badcfe
D = 10325476
E = c3d2e1f0
Basic Steps...
Step 4: the 80-step processing of 512-bit
blocks – 4 rounds, 20 steps each.
Each step t (0 <= t <= 79):
– Input:
• Wt – a 32-bit word from the message

• Kt – a constant.

• ABCDE: current MD.

– Output:
• ABCDE: new MD.
SHA-1 verses MD5
• Brute force attack is harder (160 vs 128 bits
for MD5)
• A little slower than MD5 (80 vs 64 steps)
– Both work well on a 32-bit architecture
• Both designed as simple and compact for
implementation
• Cryptanalytic attacks
– MD4/5: vulnerability discovered since its design
– SHA-1: no until recent 2005 results raised concerns
on its use in future applications
Revised Secure Hash Standard
• NIST have issued a revision FIPS 180-2 in
2002
• Adds 3 additional hash algorithms
• SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512
– Collectively called SHA-2
• Designed for compatibility with increased
security provided by the AES cipher
• Structure & detail are similar to SHA-1
• Hence analysis should be similar, but security
levels are rather higher

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