Review

• Overview of Cryptography
• Classical Symmetric Cipher
– Substitution Cipher
– Transposition Cipher
– Product Cipher
• Modern Symmetric Ciphers (DES)
 Basic Terminology
• plaintext - the original message
• ciphertext - the coded message
• cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
• decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
• cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
• cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
• cryptology - the field of both cryptography and
cryptanalysis
 Feistel Cipher Structure
• Feistel cipher implements Shannon’s S-P
network concept
– based on invertible product cipher
• Process through multiple rounds which
– partitions input block into two halves
– perform a substitution on left data half
– based on round function of right half & subkey
– then have permutation swapping halves
DES (Data Encryption Standard)
• Published in 1977, standardized in 1979.
• Key: 64 bit quantity=8-bit parity+56-bit
key
– Every 8th bit is a parity bit.
• 64 bit input, 64 bit output.
64 bit M 64 bit C
DES
Encryption

56 bits
 DES Top View
56-bit Key
64-bit
48-bitInput
K1
Generate keys
Permutation Initial Permutation
48-bit K1
Round 1
48-bit K2
Round 2
…... 48-bit K16
Round 16

Swap Swap 32-bit halves

Permutation Final Permutation

64-bit Output
Bit Permutation (1-to-1)

1 2 3 4 32
Input: 0 0 1 0 ……. 1

1 bit

Output 1 0 1 1 …….. 1
22 6 13 32 3
 Per-Round Key Generation
Initial Permutation of DES key

C i-1 28 bits D i-1 28 bits

Circular Left Shift Circular Left Shift

One
round Permutation Round 1,2,9,16:
with Discard single shift
Others: two bits
48 bits
Ki
Ci 28 bits Di 28 bits
 A DES Round
32 bits Ln 32 bits Rn

E
One 48 bits
Mangler
Round Function 48 bits
Encryption S-Boxes Ki

32 bits

32 bits Ln+1 32 bits Rn+1

 Mangler Function
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

+ + + + + + + +

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 The permutation produces

“spread” among the
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 chunks/S-boxes!

Permutation
 Bits Expansion (1-to-m)
1 2 3 4 5 32
Input: 0 0 1 0 1……. 1

Output

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 …….. 1 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 48
 S-Box (Substitute and Shrink)
• 48 bits ==> 32 bits. (8*6 ==> 8*4)
• 2 bits used to select amongst 4
substitutions for the rest of the 4-bit
quantity
2 bits I1
row I2
I3 Si O1
O2
I4 O3
I5 O4

4 bits I6
column i = 1,…8.
 DES Standard
• Cipher Iterative Action • Key Generation Box :
: – Input: 56 bits
– Input: 64 bits
– Output: 48 bits
– Key: 48 bits
– Output: 64 bits

One round (Total 16 rounds)

 DES Box Summary
• Simple, easy to implement:
– Hardware/gigabits/second,
software/megabits/second
• 56-bit key DES may be acceptable for non-
critical applications but triple DES (DES3)
should be secure for most applications today
• Supports several operation modes (ECB CBC,
OFB, CFB) for different applications
 Outlines
• Strength/weakness of DES, AES
• Public Key Cryptography
• Modular Arithmetic
• RSA
 Avalanche Effect
• Key desirable property of encryption alg
• Where a change of one input or key bit
results in changing more than half output
bits
• DES exhibits strong avalanche
 Strength of DES – Key Size
• 56-bit keys have 256 = 7.2 x 1016 values
• Brute force search looks hard
• Recent advances have shown is possible
– in 1997 on a huge cluster of computers over the
Internet in a few months
– in 1998 on dedicated hardware called “DES
cracker” by EFF in a few days ($220,000)
– in 1999 above combined in 22hrs!
• Still must be able to recognize plaintext
• No big flaw for DES algorithms
 DES Replacement
• Triple-DES (3DES)
– 168-bit key, no brute force attacks
– Underlying encryption algorithm the same, no
effective analytic attacks
– Drawbacks
• Performance: no efficient software codes for DES/3DES
• Efficiency/security: bigger block size desirable

• Advanced Encryption Standards (AES)

– US NIST issued call for ciphers in 1997
– Rijndael was selected as the AES in Oct-2000
 AES
• Private key symmetric block cipher
• 128-bit data, 128/192/256-bit keys
• Stronger & faster than Triple-DES
• Provide full specification & design details
• Evaluation criteria
– Security: effort to practically cryptanalysis
– Cost: computational efficiency and memory
requirement
– Algorithm & implementation characteristics:
flexibility to apps, hardware/software suitability,
simplicity
 AES Shortlist
• After testing and evaluation, shortlist in Aug-
99:
– MARS (IBM) - complex, fast, high security margin
– RC6 (USA) - v. simple, v. fast, low security margin
– Rijndael (Belgium) - clean, fast, good security
margin
– Serpent (Euro) - slow, clean, v. high security margin
– Twofish (USA) - complex, v. fast, high security
margin
• Then subject to further analysis & comment
 Outlines
• Strength/weakness of DES, AES
• Public Key Cryptography
• Modular Arithmetic
• RSA
 Private-Key Cryptography
• Private/secret/single key cryptography
uses one key
• Shared by both sender and receiver
• If this key is disclosed communications are
compromised
• Also is symmetric, parties are equal
• Hence does not protect sender from receiver
forging a message & claiming is sent by
sender
 Public-Key Cryptography
• Probably most significant advance in the
3000 year history of cryptography
• Uses two keys – a public & a private key
• Asymmetric since parties are not equal
• Uses clever application of number theoretic
concepts to function
• Complements rather than replaces private
key crypto
 Public-Key Cryptography
• Public-key/two-key/asymmetric
cryptography involves the use of two keys:
– a public-key, which may be known by anybody,
and can be used to encrypt messages, and
verify signatures
– a private-key, known only to the recipient, used
to decrypt messages, and sign (create)
signatures
• Asymmetric because
– those who encrypt messages or verify signatures
cannot decrypt messages or create signatures
Public-Key Cryptography
 Public-Key Characteristics
• Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys with
the characteristics that it is:
– computationally infeasible to find decryption key
knowing only algorithm & encryption key
– computationally easy to en/decrypt messages
when the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
– either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption (in
some schemes)
• Analogy to delivery w/ a padlocked box
 Public-Key Cryptosystems

• Two major applications:

– encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
– digital signatures (provide authentication)
 Outlines
• Strength/weakness of DES, AES
• Public Key Cryptography
• Modular Arithmetic
• RSA
 Modular Arithmetic
• Public key algorithms are based on
modular arithmetic.
• Modular addition.
• Modular multiplication.
• Modular exponentiation.
 Modular Addition
• Addition modulo (mod) K
– Poor cipher with (dk+dm) mod K, e.g., if K=10 and dk is the key.

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2

• Additive inverse: addition mod K yields 0.

• “Decrypt” by adding inverse.
 Modular Multiplication
• Multiplication modulo K

* 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
3 0 3 6 9 2 5 8 1 4 7

• Multiplicative inverse: multiplication mod K

yields 1
• Only some numbers have inverse
 Modular Multiplication
• Only the numbers relatively prime to n will
have mod n multiplicative inverse
• x, m relative prime: no other common factor
than 1
– Eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime - factors of 8 are
1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only
common factor
 Totient Function
• Totient function ø(n): number of integers less
than n relatively prime to n
– if n is prime,
• ø(n)=n-1

– if n=pq, and p, q are primes, p != q

• ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)

– E.g.,
• ø(37) = 36
• ø(21) = (3–1)×(7–1) = 2×6 = 12
 Modular Exponentiation
xy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 4 8 6 2 4 8 6 2
3 1 3 9 7 1 3 9 7 1 3
4 1 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4
5 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 1 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 1 7 9 3 1 7 9 3 1 7
8 1 8 4 2 6 8 4 2 6 8
9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9
 Modular Exponentiation
• xy mod n = xy mod ø(n) mod n
• if y = 1 mod ø(n) then xy mod n = x
mod n
 Outlines
• Strength/weakness of DES, AES
• Public Key Cryptography
• Modular Arithmetic
• RSA
 RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman)
• The most popular one.
• Support both public key encryption and
digital signature.
• Assumption/theoretical basis:
– Factoring a big number is hard.
• Variable key length (usually 512 bits).
• Variable plaintext block size.
– Plaintext must be “smaller” than the key.
– Ciphertext block size is the same as the key
length.
 What Is RSA?
• To generate key pair:
– Pick large primes (>= 256 bits each) p and q
– Let n = p*q, keep your p and q to yourself!
– For public key, choose e that is relatively prime to
ø(n) =(p-1)(q-1), let pub = <e,n>
– For private key, find d that is the multiplicative
inverse of e mod ø(n), i.e., e*d = 1 mod ø(n), let
priv = <d,n>
 RSA Example
1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11
2. Compute n = pq =17×11=187
3. Compute ø(n)=(p–1)(q-1)=16×10=160
4. Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5. Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160 Value
is d=23 since 23×7=161= 10×160+1
6. Publish public key KU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key KR={23,17,11}
 How Does RSA Work?
• Given pub = <e, n> and priv = <d, n>
– encryption: c = me mod n, m < n
– decryption: m = cd mod n
– signature: s = md mod n, m < n
– verification: m = se mod n

• given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)

• encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11

• decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
 Why Does RSA Work?
• Given pub = <e, n> and priv = <d, n>
– n =p*q, ø(n) =(p-1)(q-1)
– e*d = 1 mod ø(n)
– xed = x mod n
– encryption: c = me mod n
– decryption: m = cd mod n = med mod n = m mod
n = m (since m < n)
– digital signature (similar)
 Is RSA Secure?
• Factoring 512-bit number is very hard!
• But if you can factor big number n then given
public key <e,n>, you can find d, hence the
private key by:
– Knowing factors p, q, such that, n = p*q
– Then ø(n) =(p-1)(q-1)
– Then d such that e*d = 1 mod ø(n)
• Threat
– Moore’s law
– Refinement of factorizing algorithms
• For the near future, a key of 1024 or 2048 bits
 Symmetric (DES) vs. Public Key
(RSA)
• Exponentiation of RSA is expensive !
• AES and DES are much faster
– 100 times faster in software
– 1,000 to 10,000 times faster in hardware
• RSA often used in combination in AES and
DES
– Pass the session key with RSA