The Basics of Data Analysis, &

Biostatistics
Bushra Haider
Research Officer
Medical Professional Education Department
Northwest General Hospital & Research
Center
Course Objective
At the end of this session, you will be able to
1. Define data, information, statistics, and biostatistics.
2. Understand and differentiate between different data types.
3. Select the right statistical analysis methods based on the data
type.
4. Differentiate between descriptive and inferential statistics.
5. Can enter data in SPSS independently.
6. Analyze data through SPSS
7. Interpret data findings.
What we will not discuss
We will not discuss
1. Lots of maths.
2. Numerical statistical formulas.
3. Medical students coming to statistics support usually want help
with using SPSS, choosing the right analysis, and interpreting
output.
4. Maths is little scary for medical students.
What is data?
 Data are individual pieces of factual information recorded and used
for the purpose of analysis.
 It is the raw information from which results are created.
 Data can be something simple and seemingly

random and useless until it is organized.

 Data vs Information
DATA INFORMATION

 Raw Facts  Data with context

 No context  Processed data

 Just number and text  Value added to the data

Summarized
Organized
Analyzed
Statistics
Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection,
summarization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and
then draw conclusion about population on the basis of this data set.
 Main Function of Statistics:

1. Collection of data
2. Presentation of data
3. Analysis of data
4. Interpretation of data
Biostatistics
 The branch of statistics that deals with data relating to living
organisms.
 Statistics applied to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
biological data and especially data relating to human biology,
health, and medicine.
 Observation
In statistics, an observation often means any sort of numerically recording
of information, whether it is a physical measurement such as height or
weight; a classification such as male or female; or an answer to a
question such as yes or no.

For Example

Patients BMI Recording in kg/m2: 18.45, 19.00, 24.50, 30.00, 28.55, 25.00
 Here each observation represents a single data point from a single
patient at a given time
 Variable
A characteristic that varies with an individual or object is called
variable.
For Example;
Age, weight, height, BMI, health status, clinical characteristics,
gender, disease stages, laboratory diagnosis, etc all are variables as
it is different from person to person
Here we will define a variable as a group name for which numerical
recordings of information called observation are obtained across
different individuals included in the study to provide a collection of
observation called data.
Classification of variable
(Based on Nature of Data)
Nominal
Qualitative
(Categorical
)
Ordinal
Variable
(Data)
Discrete
Quantitative
(Numerical)
Continuous
 Qualitative/Categorical Variable
 Qualitative / Categorical variables refer to non-numerical data or
words.
 For example, gender, medication adherence, treatment plan,
disease status, education level, socioeconomic status, etc.
 All these words represent categorical entities.
 We can count the number of patients/individuals in each category.
 Categorical variables can be in the form of ordered data or non-
ordered
 Nominal Variable (Data Ordinal Variable (Data type)
type)
 Data that can be categorized but not  Here the categories have
ordered. meaningful order or ranking.
 The categories must be mutually  Intervals between the categories
exclusive. are not necessarily equal or known.
 Here we use numbers to denote  It allows for the comparison of
various categories but these number order but not the magnitude of
don’t have any numerical difference between categories.
importance. Example:
Example: • Pain Severity (None, Mild,
• Gender (Male, Female, Non-binary). Moderate, Severe).
• Blood Type (A, B, AB, O). • Stage of Cancer (Stage I, Stage II,
• Disease Type (Diabetes, Stage III, Stage IV).
Hypertension, Asthma) etc. • Patient Satisfaction (Very
Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neutral,
Satisfied, Very Satisfied) etc.
 studies
Rating Scale: Likert scale

It is a type of ordinal data scale where A type of rating scale use to measure attitudes, opinions,

respondents evaluate or rate a specific item, or perceptions.

characteristic, or attribute. • Typically consists of a statement followed by a range

• The ratings are usually numeric and can of responses that indicate various degrees of

range from simple 1 to 10 scale to complex, agreement or disagreement.

depending on the assessment. • Usually has an equal number of positive and negative

• Data is numeric but it represents ordered response options around a neutral point.

categories rather than continuous values. • The responses indicate order but not the precise

Example; magnitude of difference between them.

Common Format: (Strongly Disagree, Disagree,

Pain Intensity: Rating pain on a scale from 0 -
Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree)
10.
Health Perception: "I feel healthier after the treatment."
Satisfaction Level: Rating patient satisfaction
(Responses ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree"
with healthcare services from 1-100
Analysis Implication
1. Nominal Data:

Frequency and graphical representation (simple bar chart, cluster bar chart
and pie chart), chi-square.

2. Ordinal data:

Frequency and graphical representation (simple bar chart, cluster bar chart
and pie chart), chi-square.

3. Rating Scale Data or Likert Scale :

Typically analyzed using non-parametric tests if treated as ordinal data or

parametric tests if treated as interval data (assuming equal intervals between
responses).
Quantitative Variable
• Quantitative variable refers to the numerical and actual numbers.
• In quantitative variables, there is a fixed and meaningful difference
between various data points.
• For Example; Weights of the babies attending a clinic, number of
patients, the doses of medicine, or the blood pressure of different
patients.
• They can be compared and we can do calculations on the values.

• The difference between a systolic blood pressure value of 110 and

120 mm Hg is the same as between 150 and 160 mm Hg (being 10
mm Hg).
 Continuous Variable (Data
Discrete Variable (Data type) type)

It takes a finite or countable number of distinct It takes an infinite number of values (any value

values typically whole numbers. including fractions and decimals) within a given

 There are clear, separate gaps between range.

 Continuous variables represent measurements
possible values.
and It has no gaps and breaks
 The variable cannot take on any values
Example:
between its discrete points.
 Height: Patients’ height (e.g., 170.5 cm, 175.3
Example:
cm).
 Number of Patients: The number of
 Blood Pressure: Patients’ blood pressure
patients enrolled in a study (e.g., 10, 20, 30).
(e.g., 120.5 mmHg, 130.2 mmHg).
 Number of Symptoms: The number of
 Time: Medication effect time (e.g., 1.5 hr, 2.75
symptoms a patient exhibits (e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3). hr).
 Number of Hospital Visits: The number of

times a patient visits the hospital in a year.

 Dependent Variable Independent Variable
It is the outcome, effect, or response It is the factor or condition that is
that is being measured or tested in an manipulated or controlled by the
experiment.
researcher to determine its effect
It is called "dependent" because its
on the dependent variable.
value depends on changes or
It is called "independent" because it
variations in the independent variable
is presumed to cause changes in
Example:
the dependent variable, rather than
Effect of a new drug on blood
pressure, being influenced by it.

Blood Pressure (dependent variable) Example:

Drug used to control BP
Example
Study: Effect of exercise on weight loss.
 Independent Variable: Exercise regimen (e.g., no exercise,
moderate exercise, intense exercise).
 Dependent Variable: Weight loss (measured in pounds or
kilograms).
Population
 A group of individuals that share at least one characteristic in
common is called POPULATION.
 It is an entire group about which some information is required to be
determined
 At the level of CLINICAL RESEARCH this might refer to every
individual with a certain disease, or risk factor.
 A statistical population need not consist only of people. We can
have a population of heights, weights, BMIs, hemoglobin levels,
events, and outcomes
Example
 If the researcher wants to investigate the mental health status of
healthcare workers in Peshawar then the population will be all
health care workers in Peshawar City, whether working or not,
retired or on job, working in private or government setup.
Target Population
• The target population is a specific subgroup within the larger
population that the researcher wants to draw conclusions about.
• It represents the group to which the study findings are intended to
be generalized.
• In this example the target population might be all healthcare
worker currently working in MTI hospital Peshawar and in age
between 25 years to 60 years.
Sample
 Sample is a small and representative part of population.
 There are various sampling techniques that help us to select the
representative sample from population
 Total individual in sample is called sample size and represented as
‘n’.
 The result obtained from representative sample is generalized to
the target population
 In previous example100 healthcare worker selected from 4 MTI
hospital (NWGH, LRH, HMC, RMI) will be called as sample
 Descriptive Vs Inferential
Statistics
Statistics as a subject is divided into two parts
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
It deals with the concepts and method It deals with procedure for making inferences
concerned with the summarization and about the characteristics that describe the
description of the important aspects of data large group of data or whole population on the

This area includes basis of information derived from sample data.

1. Summarization/condensation of data This area includes

(frequency table) 1. Estimation of population parameter

2. Graphical representation 2. Testing of hypothesis

3. Computation of a few numerical entities This phase is based on probability

that provide information about the theory, as the inferences based on
center and spread of observation sample evidence cannot be absolutely
true
 Statistical Methods we discussed
today
Numerical/continuous
Nominal/Ordinal Data Data
1. Frequency table 1. Measure of central tendency;
2. Cross tabulation Averages (Mean, Median,
3. Graphical representation (bar Mode).
char, cluster bar chart, pie 2. Measure of dispersion
chart) (standard deviation).
4. Graphical representation (line 3. Chi square test
graph 4. Data normality test
5. Correlation
6. Data comparison test
(parametric non parametric)
 NOTE
1. We will not discussed numerical formulas of
these statistical method

2. We only discussed how to calculate and

interpret it through SPSS
Getting start with
SPSS
Over View of SPSS
 SPSS for windows is a computer package that will perform a wide
variety of statistical procedures.
 Data management and analysis can be handled well with SPSS.
 Using SPSS we can analyze data, make graphs and perform
statistical techniques varying from simple Frequency distribution to
advance regression analysis.
Getting Started
Today we will discuss
1. What is SPSS?
2. Features of SPSS
3. Basic data analysis (both descriptive statistical and inferential
statistical techniques through SPSS)
What is SPSS ?
• SPSS stands for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
• It also stands for Statistical Product and Service Solutions
• It is also known by the name PASW (Predictive Analytic Software)
• Currently, SPSS version 29 is available in the market
• Here we will use SPSS version 25
Features of SPSS
 User Friendly,
 Provide Built-in Command Function
 Provide Command in Programming Language format
 Data Access
 Data Management & Manipulation
 Ability to Generate Various Statistical Reports
 Ability to Store Programs & Reports
After clicking on SPSS icon from your computer, the below window will be opened
Menu Bar

Tool Bar

Data Editor
window

Variable view

Data view
Windows of SPSS
There are four main windows in SPSS
1. Data editor (Data view and Variable view)
2. Output viewer
3. Syntax editor
4. Script window
1. Data Editor
Spreadsheet-like system for defining variables, entering, editing,

and displaying data. The extension of the saved file is“sav.”

2. Output Viewer
Displays output of analysis and errors. The extension of the saved file
will be “spv.”
3. Syntax Editor
• Text editor for syntax composition. The extension of the saved file
will be “sps.”
4. Script Window
Provides the opportunity to write full-blown programs, in a BASIC-like
language. Extension of the saved file will be “sbs.”
Get Data into SPSS
 How to enter data directly in SPSS ?
• We can enter data directly in the Data Editor in the Data View, in any order,
by case or by variable, for selected areas or for individual cells.
• Every Data Editor contains Cell and the active cell is highlighted.

• The variable name and row number of the active cell are displayed in the
top left corner of the Data Editor.
• When we select a cell and enter a data value, the value is displayed in the
cell editor at the top of the Data Editor.
• Data values are not recorded until we press Enter or select another cell.

• If we enter a value in an empty column, the Data Editor automatically

creates a new variable and assigns a variable name.
Variable View Editor
It consists of the following heading
1. Name
2. Type
3. Width
4. Decimals
5. Label
6. Values
7. Missing
8. Columns
9. Align
10.Measure
1.Variable Name
Rules for Variable Names
 Must be unique
 Length >= 8 characters
 Must begin with a letter
 May include “@”, “#”, “_” or “$”
 Should not end with an underscore
 Cannot include blanks or special characters
2. Type
Click on the ‘type’ box. The two basic types of
variables that you will use are numeric and string.
This column enables you to specify the type of
variable.
We can select type of variable based on choices
1. String (for naming variable)

2. Numerical (for quantitative variable or

qualitative variable based on numerical
coding)
3. Width
Width allows to determine the number of characters SPSS will allow
to be entered for the variable (SPSS selects 8 width by default, which
is enough for numerical variable or coding variable. For string
increase width more than 8)
4. Decimals
Number of decimals for continuous data. By default, SPSS selects 2
decimal points.
5. Label
1. We can specify the details of the variable here (can write complete
sentences).
2. We can write characters with spaces up to 256 characters
6. Values
1. This is used and to suggest which numbers
represent which categories when the variable
represents a category
1. Click the cell in the values column as shown
below
2. For the value, and the label, you can put up to
60 characters.
3. After defining the values click add and then
click OK.
7. Measure
Here we will select the format of our variable (as discussed
previously)

Select
1. Nominal of naming variable
2. Ordinal for ordered data/Likert scale
3. Scale for numerical (continuous variable or discrete variable)
Practical Exercise (Enter the following data
in SPSS)
 Screening and cleaning of data
Step 1
Checking for errors: First, we need to check each of variables for
scores that are out of range (i.e. not within the range of possible
scores).

Step 2
Finding and correcting the error in the data file: Second, we
need to find where in the data file this error occurred (i.e. which case
is involved) and correct or delete the value.
 Checking for Error
 When checking for errors, we primarily look for values that fall
outside the range.
 For example, if gender is coded 1=male, 2=female, we should not
find any scores other than 1 or 2 for this variable. Scores that fall
outside the possible range can distort our statistical analysis
 To check for errors, we need to inspect the frequencies for each of
the variables.
Procedure for checking Error
 Click on Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequency

 A dialogue box will open

 Choose the variable we wish to check and move it to the variable

box.
 Click on the ‘Statistics’ Option.

 Click on the ‘maximum and minimum’ options under the Dispersion

section
 Click ‘Continue’ and then ‘OK’
 Correcting the error in data file
 Click on a variable in which you want to check the identified error
where it is located
 Then Click on Edit -> Find
 A dialogue box will open
 Enter the incorrect value in the ‘find bar’
 Then click ‘find next’
 Correct the entry after checking in the record.
Analysis of Categorical

(Nominal and Ordinal

Variables)
Frequency
 frequencies provide us with detailed information about each value
assigned to particular variables. This function allows us to get a
better idea about the distribution of the values for each variable.
SPSS Steps
 Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequencies…
 A dialogue box will open
 Select the desire variable and move it to the box under variable
heading
 Make sure to checked “display frequency table”
 Click on “Ok”. The result will be displayed in the output window
Cross Table
 Cross-tabulation takes us to the next step in our analysis. It permits us to
compare frequency information for the intersection between two variables. Thus,
we can now compare the frequencies of age to sex.
SPSS Steps
 Click Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Crosstabs…
 A dialogue box will open
 Select the desire variable (preferably independent like gender) and move it to
box under Row heading
 Select another desire variable (preferably dependent like education level) and
move it to box under column heading
 Click on “CELL” option and select rows and column percentages
 Click “continue” and then “Ok”. Result will display in output window.
Simple Bar Chart
1. Click Graphs -> Legacy Dialogs -> Bar
2. Click Define
3. Select the variable for which you wish to create a bar chart, and
move it into the “Category Axis” box.
4. Select “Titles” to add a title (recommended)
5. Click Continue after you have added a title
6. Click OK
7. Your bar chart will appear in the SPSS output viewer window
Cluster Bar Chart
1. Click Graphs -> Legacy Dialogs -> Bar

2. Select “Clustered” and “Summaries for groups of cases”

3. Click Define

4. Select the variable you wish to display on the horizontal axis, and move
it into the “Category Axis” box

5. Select the second variable, and move it to the “Define Clusters by” box

6. Select your desired option under “Bars Represent”

7. Select “Titles” to add a title (recommended)

8. Click OK
Pie Chart
1. Click Graphs -> Legacy Dialogs -> Pie
2. Select “Summaries for groups of cases”
3. Click Define
4. Click “Reset” (recommended)
5. Move the variable for which you are creating a pie chart into the
“Define slices by” box
6. Select your desired option under “Slices Represent”
7. Select “Titles” to add a title (recommended)
8. Click “OK”
 Analysis of
Numerical / Continuous
Variable
Before going toward the statistical analysis of continuous variables,
let’s discuss some of the important terms/definitions like
Level of confidence
Hypothesis Testing
Normality of data
P-value
Level of Confidence
It represents the probability that the true population parameter falls
within a specified range estimated from the sample data.
Example:
In a clinical trial investigating the efficacy of a new drug for lowering
blood pressure, researchers might aim for a 95% level of confidence.
This means that they are 95% confident that the true mean reduction
in blood pressure among patients treated with the new drug lies
within the calculated confidence interval.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences or
draw conclusions about a population based on sample data. It involves
formulating two competing hypotheses

H0: Null Hypothesis (Hypothesis of no effect/default hypothesis)

• What we assume is true to begin with

• Typically that there is no difference/effect/relationship etc.

HA: Research (Alternative) Hypothesis

• What we aim to gather evidence of

• Typically that there is a difference/effect/relationship etc.

 Decision on Basis of Hypothesis
Testing
• After making a hypothesis about a population parameter, we test the
hypothesis based on sample data collected from the population by
using the concerned statistical test,
• Then we determine the p-value based on the results obtained from
the statistical test
• Then we compared the p-value to the significance level (mostly 0.05
(5%))
• And then decide whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis
P-value (Probability Value)
 It is a measure that helps determine the strength of the evidence
against the null hypothesis.
 It is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as
the observed results, assuming that the null hypothesis is true.
 Interpretation of p-value
 Low p-value (≤α): Indicates strong evidence against the null
hypothesis, leading to its rejection.
 High p-value (>α): Indicates weak evidence against the null
hypothesis, leading to its retention.
 If p-value≤α (mostly 0.05), reject the null hypothesis
 If p-value>α (mostly 0.05), fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Test of Normality
 Before going toward the statistical analysis of continuous variables
it is necessary to check the normality of data.
 It the data becomes normal then we apply parametric statistics
otherwise non parametric.
IF THE DATA IS NORMAL IF DATA IS NOT NORMAL

 Parametric Test  Non Parametric Test

1. One sample t-test 1. One sample Wilcoxon Signed-

2. Two sample t test Rank Test

3. ANOVA 2. Mann-Whitney U Test

3. Kruskal-Wallis H Test
 How to check data normality
Two statistical test used for it
1. Kalmogorov Smirnov Test
2. Shapiro Wilk Test
The hypothesis is stated as

H0: Null Hypothesis: Data is Normal.

HA: Research (Alternative) Hypothesis: Data is not Normal

Reject H0 if p-value≤0.05
 SPSS Steps for checking data
Normality
• Analyze -> Descriptive -> Explore data
• The dialogue box will open
• Move the desire variable into the box under heading “Dependent
List”
• Click on “Plot” option
• Click on the option “Normality plot with test”
• Click Continue
• Then Ok. The result will display in the table in output window under
the heading of “test of normality”
• Check the significance value (p-value) in front of Shapiro-Wilk.
• If value is > 0.05 then the data of the variable is normal.
 Descriptive Analysis of Continues
Data
If involve
• Measure of central tendency (Mean, Median, Mode) if data is normal

• Measure of dispersion (Standard Deviation, Interquartile range) if data is

non-normal
SPSS Steps
 Analyze > Descriptive > Explore

 The dialogue box will open

 Move all desire variable to the variable box

 Checked “Statistics option”

 Click Ok. Result will display.

One sample t test
 One sample t-test is used to test the statistical hypothesis
regarding Population Mean or Population Average.
 One sample is taken from the population.
 The assumption of this test is

1. variance of the population must be unknown

2. Samples must be taken independently
3. Data is normal
SPSS Steps
Click
 Analyze - > Compare Mean - > One sample t- test
 Select the variable of interest as “Test Variable”
 Select the hypothesize value of the population mean or population
average as “Test Value”
 Click on “Option” if you require Confidence Interval for the
population Mean
 Click Ok
 Two Sample t test (Independent
Sample)
 The independent t-test compares the means between two
unrelated groups on the same continuous, dependent variable.
 The SPSS t-test procedure allows the testing of equality of
variances (Levene's test) and the t-value for both equal- and
unequal-variance.
Assumption
1. Two independent group
2. The dependent variables must be normal
SPSS Steps
Click
 Click Analyze > Compare Means > Independent-Samples T Test

 Move the dependent variable to the box under “test variable heading”

 Move the grouping variable to the “grouping variable;e”

 Then click on “Define Groups”

 Enter "1" into the "Group 1:" box and enter "2" into the "Group 2:" box.

 Note: this 1 and 2 will be assign as these values assign to categorical

variable in values label on the basis of which we compare the two samples.
 Click on “Continue” and then click on “Ok”.
ANOVA
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is used to determine whether there
are significant differences between the means of three or more
independent (unrelated) groups.
• It extends the t-test to more than two groups, assessing whether at
least one group mean is significantly different from the others.
SPSS Steps
Click
 Analyze -> Compare Means ->Select One-Way ANOVA.

 A dialog box will appear.

 Move dependent variable into the Dependent List box.

 Move independent variable into the Factor box.

 Click on the Post Hoc button to specify which post hoc test to use if the
ANOVA is significant. Common choices include Tukey, Scheffé, or Bonferroni.
 Select the desired post hoc test and click Continue.
One sample Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
 It is a non-parametric test SPSS Steps
 Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > One
used to compare a single
Sample...
sample median to a  Click 'Settings'.
hypothesized population  Under 'Select an item', select 'Choose

median. Tests'.
 Choose 'Customise Tests'.
 It is used when the data do
 Select 'Compare median to hypothesized
not meet the assumptions of (Wilcoxon signed rank test)'.
the one-sample t-test,  Enter the value of the 'Hypothesized

particularly normality median' and click 'Run'

Mann-Whitney U Test
The Mann-Whitney U Test, SPSS Steps
 Analyze > Nonparametric Tests
also known as the Wilcoxon
 Select Legacy Dialogs.
Rank-Sum Test, is a non-
 Choose 2 Independent Samples.
parametric test used to
 Move dependent variable to the Test
compare differences
Variable List.
between two independent
 Move grouping variable to the Grouping
groups. It assesses whether Variable box and define the two groups.
the distributions of the two  Ensure Mann-Whitney U is selected under
groups are different. Test Type.
 Kruskal-Walis H Test
This is a non-parametric SPSS Steps

test used to compare  Analyze > Nonparametric Tests.

three or more  Select Legacy Dialogs.

 Choose K Independent Samples.

independent groups.
 Move dependent variable to the Test Variable List.
It is an alternative to one-
 Move grouping variable to the Grouping Variable
way ANOVA when the
box and define the groups.
data do not meet the
 Ensure Kruskal-Wallis H is selected under Test Type.
assumptions of normality.
 Click OK.
 Chi-Square Test
It is a non-parametric SPSS Steps
 Analyze Descriptive Statistics >Crosstabs.
statistical test used to
 Dialog Box will open.
determine if there is a
 Move one of the categorical variables to the
significant association
Row(s) box.
between two  Move the other categorical variable to the
categorical variables or Column(s) box.

independent of each  Click on the Statistics button.

 In the dialog box that appears, check the box for

other.
Chi-square.
 Click Continue and then Ok
 Correlation
 It is a bivariate measure of
SPSS Steps
association of the relationship
 Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate
between two Quantitative
 Dialogue box will open
variables. Most often used one
 Move the desire variable to
is called Pearson correlation
variable box
 It varies from -1 to 1 (perfect
 Leave "Pearson" checked as the
linear relationship) or -1 (perfect
default
negative linear relationship)
 Click Ok
Thank You