Electrical Drives and Controls

Unit-I
Introduction
 Introduction to Electrical Drives
• Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic
applications like transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines,
textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots, washing machines etc.

• Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may employ
any of prime movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam
turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors, for
supplying mechanical energy for motion control.

• Drives employing electric motors are known as electrical drives.

• An electric drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for

converting electrical energy into mechanical energy to impart motion to
different machines and mechanisms for various kinds of process control.
 Classification of Electrical Drives
• According to Number of machines
– Individual drive
– Group drive
– Multi-motor drive
 Individual Drive or Single Drive
• In this a single motor is dedicated to a single load.
 Individual Drive or Single Drive
• Advantages:
– Flexibility of layout
– Efficiency is high because no load losses are less.
– Quite operation compared to other drive.
– It requires less space.

• Disadvantages:
– Cost is high compared to group drive

• Examples: Home appliances such as Mixer, Grinder, Washers, Dryers,

Fans, Drilling Machines, Power tools, Pumps, Compressors, etc.,
 Group Drive
• This drive consists of a single motor, which drives one or more line shafts
supported on bearings.

• The line shaft may be fitted with either pulleys and belts or gears, by
means of which a group of machines or mechanisms may be operated.

• It is also sometimes called as shaft drives.

 Group Drive
• Advantages:
– The group drive is most economical because, a single large motor can be
used instead of number of small motors.
– The rating of single motor used may be comparatively less than the
aggregate of ratings of individual motors required to drive each
equipment.
– Efficiency is increased at full load.

• Disadvantages:
– There is no flexibility layout.
– If the single motor used develops fault, the whole process will be
stopped.
– Efficiency is less at light load or no load.
– In this drive noise is high.
– It requires more space.
– Addition of an extra machine to the main shaft is difficult.
– This system is not safe for operator.
 Multi Motor Drive
• In this drive system, there are several motors used to drives single
mechanical load, each of which serves to actuate one of the working parts
of the drive mechanisms.

• E.g.: Complicated metal cutting machine tools, Robotics, Assembly lines,

Paper making machines, Rolling machines, Cloth printing and Traveling
cranes etc.

• Advantages:
– Flexibility of installation
– Reduce the risk of accidents

• Disadvantages:
– Initial cost is high.
 Advantages of Electrical Drive
• They have flexible control characteristics.
• The steady state and dynamic characteristics of electric drives can be shaped to
satisfy the load requirements.
• Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems.
• Programmable logic controller and Computers can be employed to automatically
control the drive operations in a desired sequence.
• They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
• They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and
radioactive environments
• It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane
• They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded
• Control gear requirement for speed control, starting and braking is usually simple
and easy to operate.
• They have short time over load capacity
• Noise level is low
• It require less maintenance
 General Electric Drive System
• Block diagram of an electric drive system is shown in the figure below.

• A modern variable speed electrical drive system has the following components
• Electrical machines (Actuator / Motor)
• Mechanical loads
• Transmission system
• Power Modulator or Converter
• Sources
• Control unit
• Sensing unit
 Motors
• Motors obtain the power from electrical sources.

• They convert electrical energy to mechanical - therefore can be regarded as energy converters.
In braking mode, the flow of power is reversed.

• Depending upon the type of power converters used, it is also possible for the power to be fed
back to the sources (regenerative braking) rather than dissipated as heat (dynamic braking).

• Most commonly used electrical machines for speed control applications are the following

• DC Machines
– Shunt, series, compound, separately excited DC motors and switched reluctance
machines.

• AC Machines
– Induction, wound rotor, synchronous, PM synchronous and synchronous reluctance
machines.

• Special Machines
– Brush less DC motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motors are used
 Power Modulators or Converters
• Functions: Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner
that motor is imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load

• During transient operation, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts
source and motor currents with in permissible limits.

• It converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the motor.

• Select the mode of operation of the motor (i.e.) Motoring and Braking.

• More efficient – since ideally no losses occur in power electronic converters

• Flexible – voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling the switching
functions of the power converter

• Compact – smaller, compact and higher ratings solid–state power electronic

devices are continuously being developed – the prices are getting cheaper.
 Power Modulators or Converters
• Types of power modulators

• In the electric drive system, the power modulators can be any one of the following
– Controlled rectifiers (ac to dc converters)
– Inverters (dc to ac converters)
– AC voltage controllers (AC to AC converters)
– DC choppers (DC to DC converters)
– Cycloconverters (Frequency conversion)
 Electrical Sources
• Very low power drives are generally fed from single phase sources.

• Rest of the drives is powered from a 3 phase source.

• Low and medium power motors are fed from a 400V supply.

• For higher ratings, motors may be rated at 3.3KV, 6.6KV and 11 KV.

• Some drives are powered from battery or DC supply.

 Sensing Unit
• The most common sensing devices are transducers, which converts non-electrical
quantities (Physical quantities) into electrical signal.

• Sensors are used to measure the speed, torque, velocity (linear and angular),
displacement etc.

– Speed Sensing (Tachogenerator)

– Torque Sensing
– Position Sensing (Hall sensor, Optical encoders)
– Current sensing and Voltage Sensing from Lines or from motor terminals
– Temperature Sensing
 Control Unit
• Control unit for a power modulator are provided in the control unit.

• It matches the motor and power converter to meet the load requirements.

• Controller is an important device which governs the entire operation of the drive
system.

• There are different controller employed in drive system such as

– electromechanical relays,
– electronic controller (P, PI, PD, and PID controller),
– microprocessor, microcontroller, embedded controller and
– DSP controller etc
 Transmission System
• The electric motor to drive the load through transmitting system.

• The mechanical power can be transferred to load via

– Pulley,
– V-belt,
– Flat belt,
– Chain,
– Rope,
– Gear,
– Coupling etc.
 Classification of electric drive

• DC drive

• AC drive
Comparison between DC and AC drives
 Applications of electric drive
• Domestic / Home appliances: Fan, Mixer, Grinder, Refrigerator, Air Conditioner,
Vacuum Cleaner, Washing Machines etc.

• Industrial applications: Steel mills, Rolling mills, Printing, Textile, Cement, Sugar
and process industries etc.

• Agriculture: Water irrigation, Centrifugal pumps and Reciprocating pumps

• Transportation: Conveyors, Trolley Busses, Train, Car, Electric locomotive

• Commercial applications: Compressors, Escalator, Lift, Hoist, Excavator, Cranes

 Choice (or) Selection of Electrical Drives
• Choice of an electric drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important
factors are.
• Steady State Operating conditions requirements
– Nature of speed torque characteristics
– Speed regulation
– Speed range
– Efficiency
– Duty cycle
– Quadrants of operation
– Speed fluctuations

• Transient operation requirements

– Values of acceleration
– Deceleration
– Starting
– Braking
– Reversing
 Choice (or) Selection of Electrical Drives
• Requirements related to the source
– Types of source and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations,
power factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability to accept
regenerative power

• Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life.

• Space and weight restriction if any.

• Environment and location.

• Reliability.

• Mechanical characteristics
– Type of enclosures (Open type, Screen protected, Splash proof, Flame proof,
Drip proof, Totally enclosed, Pipe ventilated )
– Type of bearings (Ball, Sleeve and Bush bearings)
– Transmission systems (Belt, Chain, Rope, Gear and Coupling drive)
– Noise level
 Dynamics of Electric Drives

• Dynamic Equation:

d
T  TL  ( J m )
dt

• Where
 T – Motor Torque
 TL = Load Torque
 ωm = Speed of the system (i.e.) motor - load combination.
 Jωm = Angular momentum
 Dynamics of Electric Drives
d
T  TL  ( J m )
dt

d m dJ
T  TL  J  m
dt dt

• Usually inertia is constant (i.e.) it doesn’t change with time, so we assume that
dJ/dt = 0

d m
T  TL  J
dt

dm
T J  TL
dt
• This is the equation valid in steady state as well as transient state.
 Dynamics of Electric Drives
• In steady state

ωm = constant

then

T = TL

• In steady state motor Torque is counter balanced by load torque. So, the speed is
constant.
 Classification of Load Torques
• Various load torques can be classified into broad categories.

– Active load torques

– Passive load torques

 Active and passive load torque
• Active Load Torque:
• Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
conditions are called active load torques. Such load torques usually retain their sign
when the drive rotation is changed (reversed)

• Example:
– Torque due to force of gravity
– Torque due to tension
– Torque due to compression and torsion etc.,

• Passive Load Torque:

• Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal
of motion are called passive load torques

• Example:
– Torque due to friction, cutting etc.
 Components of Load Torques
The load torque Tl can be further divided into following components

• Friction Torque (TF)

• Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load. TF is
the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.

• Windage Torque (TW)

• When motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is known as
windage torque.

• Torque required to do useful mechanical work

• Nature of this torque depends upon particular application. It may be constant and
independent of speed. It may be some function of speed, it may be time invariant or
time variant, its nature may also change with the load’s mode of operation.
 Typical load torque characteristics of
mechanical loads
• Constant torque type load

• Torque proportional to speed (Generator Type load)

• Torque proportional to square of the speed (Fan type load)

• Torque inversely proportional to speed (Constant power type load)

 Typical load torque characteristics of
mechanical loads
• Constant Torque characteristics:
– Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of work like
shaping, cutting, grinding or shearing, require constant torque irrespective of
speed.

– Similarly cranes during the hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of
material per unit time also exhibit this type of characteristics.
 Typical load torque characteristics of
mechanical loads
• Torque proportional to speed:
– Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy
current brakes have speed torque characteristics given by T = kω

– Eg: Calendaring Machines, Eddy current brake.

 Typical load torque characteristics of
mechanical loads
• Torque proportional to square of the speed:
– Another type of load met in practice is the one in which load torque is
proportional to the square of the speed (T is proportional to ω2)

– Eg: Fan, Rotary pumps, Compressors and ship propellers.

 Typical load torque characteristics of
mechanical loads
• Torque Inversely proportional to speed:
– Certain types of lathes, boring machines, milling machines, steel mill coiler
and electric traction load exhibit hyperbolic speed-torque characteristics.
 Multi-quadrant or four quadrant
operation
• In electric drive there are two important variables

– Speed

– Torque
Four quadrant operation
 Selection of motor based on load variation
• One of the essential requirements in the selection of a particular type of motor for
driving a machine or load is the matching of speed-torque characteristics of the
given drive unit or load and that of the motor.

• Therefore the knowledge of how the load torque varies with speed of the driven
machine is necessary.

• Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics. However,

most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following four categories.
– Continuous load
– Continuous variable load
– Pulsating load
– Impact load
– Short time load
– Short time intermittent load
 Selection of motor based on load variation
• Continuous load:
• These loads occur for long time under the same conditions.
• e.g.: Fans, Centrifugal pumps, paper making machines

• Continuous variable load:

• The load is variable over a period of time, but occurs repetitively for a long
duration.
• e.g.: Metal cutting lathes, Conveyors, Hoist, Winches

• Pulsating load:
• Certain types of load exhibits a torque behavior is constant torque superimposed by
pulsations.
• e.g.: reciprocation pumps, all load having crank shafts.

• Impact load:
• Peak load or pulses occur at regular intervals of time. This type of load requires
flywheels for load equalization.
• e.g.: Rolling mills, shearing machines, Presses, Forging hammer.
 Selection of motor based on load variation
• Short time load:
• A constant load appears on the drive a short time and the system rest for long time
or remainder.
• e.g.: Battery charging, Home appliances

• Short time intermittent load:

• The load appears periodically in identical duty cycle, each consist of a period of
application of load and one of rest.
• e.g.: Cranes, Hoist, and Excavator
 Classes of motor duty

• Continuous duty

• Short time duty

• Intermittent periodic duty

• Intermittent periodic duty with starting

• Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking

• Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading

• Continuous duty with starting & braking

• Continuous duty with periodic load changes

 Classes of motor duty
• Continuous duty:
• The motor is loaded continuously.
• The motor operates with constant load of sufficient duration for thermal
equilibrium to be reached.
• Obviously the rating of the motor must at least equal the continuous loading of the
machine.
• Normally, motor with next higher power rating from commercial available rating is
selected.
• e.g.: Fans, Conveyors, pumps and compressors etc.
 Classes of motor duty
• Short time duty:
• In this duty, operation at constant load during short time interval or given time and
rest for sufficiently longer time.
• The time of operation is considerably less than the thermal time constant.
• The motor is allowed to cool to ambient temperature before the new load cycle is
applied.
• The recommended values for the short time duty are 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes.
• e.g.: Home appliances like Mixer, Grinder, Vacuum cleaner etc.
 Classes of motor duty
• Intermittent periodic duty:
• A sequence of identical duty cycles consists of a periodic operation at constant load
and a rest period. The load cycle is repeated periodically.
• The machine is not allowed to cool to ambient when the next load cycle is applied.
• The temperature will fluctuate and the mean value will eventually settle to a steady
state value.
• The machine can be overloaded and amount of overloading depends on the duty
cycle of the load.
• e.g.: Tram, Trolley Busses and Hoist etc.
 Classes of motor duty
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting:
• This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of
a period of starting, a period of operation at constant load and a rest period, the
operating and rest periods are too short to obtain thermal equilibrium during one
duty cycle.
 Classes of motor duty
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking:
• This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of
a period of starting, a period of operation at constant load, a period of braking and a
rest period. The operating and rest periods are too short to obtain thermal
equilibrium during one duty cycle. The type of braking is by electrical means.
 Classes of motor duty
• Continuous duty with intermittent periodic duty:
• This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of
a period of operation at constant load and period of operation at no load. The
operation and no load periods are too short to attain thermal equilibrium during one
cycle. The duty cycle is usually 10 minutes and the recommended duty factors are
15, 25, 40 and 60 percent. The duty factor is given by

Where, V – Period of
operation of no load in
seconds.
 Classes of motor duty
• Continuous duty with starting and braking:
• This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each having a
period of starting, a period of operation at constant load and a-period of electric
braking. There is no rest period. The duty factor for this duty cycle is 1.
 Classes of motor duty
• Continuous duty with periodic speed changes:
• This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of
a period of operation at constant load corresponding to a particular speed of
rotation, followed immediately by a period of operation at another load
corresponding to a different speed of operation.
• The operating period is too short to attain thermal equilibrium during one duty
cycle and there is no rest and de-energized period.
Classes of motor duty
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
 Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor

W t  W2t 2  ....  Wn t n
Average losses W  1 1
t1  t 2  ....  t n
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor
Selection of rating of motor based on thermal overloading and
load variation factor