Pre-

Calculus

POLYNOMIAL
AND
RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS
 Content
3.1 Quadratic Functions and M o d e l s

3.2 Polynomial Functions and Graphs

3.3 Dividing Polynomials

3.4 Real Zeros of Polynomials

3.5 Complex Numbers

3.6 Complex Zeros and the Fundamental

Theorem of Algebra

3.7 Rational Functions

 3.1
Convert the equation from standard form
Overvie w to vertex form

Graphing Using Vertex

form

Finding the Maximum and

Minimum Values of the function.
 Linear Functions

A linear function is a function of the form f(x)= ax +b.

The graph of a linear function is a line with slope a and y-intercept b..

Identifying Linear Functions

●f(x) = 2+3x
●g(x) = (1-5x)/4
●k(x) = x(4+3x)
 Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is a polynomial function of degree 2. So a

quadratic function is a function of the form

f(x) = ax²+ bx +c, a≠0

TRY!!!
Convert into vertex
form:
Answers
Graphing Quadratic Functions using the standard Form

Example:

Let f(x) = 2x²- 12x + 13

(a) Express f in standard form.
(b)Find the vertex and
x- and y-intercepts of f.
(c) Sketch a graph of f.
(d)Find the domain and
range of f.
TRY!!!
Graph the functions using Vertex
Form
Finding Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions
Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions

Example:
Consider the quadratic
function

f(x) = - x² + x + 2
(a) Express f in standard
form.

(b)Sketch a graph of f.
(c) Find the maximum value
of f.
TRY!!!
Find Maximum and Minimum
Values
Answers
 3. 2
Overview Graphing Basic
Polynomial

End Behaviour and the Leading

Term

Using Zeros to graph a

Polynomial
 Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function has all of its variables with
exponents which are positive integers. It is not a
polynomial function if a variable has a negative
exponent or if the exponent is a fraction.
 Basic Features of Graphs of
Polynomial Functions.
• A graph of a polynomial function is
continuous. This means that the
graph of a polynomial function has
no breaks, holes or gaps.
 Transformatio
ns
Sketch Graphs of the Following:
Solution:
END BEHAVIOR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

The behavior of the graph of a function to the far left and far
right
is called its end behavior.

Although the graph of a polynomial function may have

intervals where it increases or decreases, the graph will
eventually rise or fall without bound as it moves far to the left
or far to the right.

How can we determine the end behavior of a polynomial

function? We look only at the term with the highest
degree.
The Leading Coefficient Test
Look for the term with the highest degree.

 Is the coefficient greater than or less than 0?

 Is the exponent even or odd?

The answers to these questions will help us to

determine the end behavior of the polynomial
function.
If the leading coefficient is positive with an even
degree to its variable, the graph rises to the left and
rises to the right (, ).

Example: f(x) = x²
If the leading coefficient is negative with an even
degree to its variable, the graph falls to the left and
falls to the right (, ).

Example: f(x) = − x²
If the leading coefficient is positive with an odd
degree to its variable, the graph falls to the left and
rises to the right (, ).

Example: f(x) = x³
If the leading coefficient is negative with an odd
degree to its variable, the graph rises to the left and
falls to the right (, ).

Example: f(x) = − x³
Using the Leading Coefficient Test

If the leading coefficient is positive with an

even degree to its variable, the graph rises to
the left and rises to the right (, ).
Using the Leading Coefficient Test
Determine the end behavior of the graph of…

f(x) = x³ + 3x − x − 3

If the leading coefficient is positive with an

odd degree to its variable, the graph falls to
the left and rises to the right (, ).
Using the Leading Coefficient Test
Determine the end behavior of the graph of…

f(x) = − 2x³ + 3x − x − 3

If the leading coefficient is negative with an odd

degree to its variable, the graph rises to the left
and falls to the right (, ).
Using the Leading Coefficient Test

If the leading coefficient is negative with an

even degree to its variable, the graph falls to the
left and falls to the right (, ).
Zeros of Polynomial Functions
• It can be shown that for a polynomial
function of degree n, the following
statements are true:

• 1.The function has, at most, n real zeros.

• 2.The graph has, at most, n – 1 turning

points.
• Turning points (relative maximum or
relative minimum) are points at which the
graph changes from increasing to
decreasing or vice versa.
Zeros of Polynomial Functions
The zeros of a polynomial function are the values of x which
make f(x) = 0. These values are the roots, or solutions of the
polynomial equation when y = 0. All real roots are the x-
intercepts of the graph.

How many turning points does f(x) = x³ + 3x² − x − 3 have?

Find all the zeros of… f(x) = x³ + 3x² − x − 3

Set up the equation: x³ + 3x² − x − 3 = 0 and solve.

 Is there a greatest common factor?

No, so try grouping

Find the greatest common factor of

each set of parentheses

Place the greatest common factors in one

set of parentheses. These two terms will
be distributed over the other two terms.

Solve for zero

Find all the real zeros of f (x) = x 4 – x3 – 2x2.
How many turning points are there?

Factor completely:
f (x) = x 4 – x3 – 2x2 = x2(x + 1)(x – 2).

y
The real zeros are x = –1, x = 0,
and x = 2. 2
(–1, 0) (0, 0)
These correspond to the x
x-intercepts. –2
(2, 0)
Check out the x-intercepts and the
multiplicities. What happens?
f (x) = x4 – x3 – 2x2
 Multiplicities of Zeros
The multiplicity of a zero is the number of times the
real
root of a polynomial function results in f(x) = 0.

Example: solve for the zeros of f(x) = x² (x − 2)²

x² (x − 2)² = 0

x² = 0 therefore, x = 0 to the multiplicity of 2

(x − 2)² = 0 therefore x = 2 to the multiplicity of

2 The exponent tells us the multiplicity.

 Multiplicity and x-intercepts
Suppose r is a zero of even multiplicity. Then the graph
touches the x-axis at r and turns around at r.

Suppose r is a zero of odd multiplicity. Then the graph

crosses the x-axis at r.

Regardless of whether a multiplicity is even or odd, the

graph tends to flatten out near zeros with a multiplicity
greater than one.
Find the zeros of…

f(x) = − 4(x + 2)²

Give the multiplicity of each zero. State whether the

graph crosses the x-axis or touches the x-axis and turns
around at each zero.
A strategy for graphing polynomial functions
1. Use the Leading Coefficient Test to determine the graph’s
end behavior.
2. Find x-intercepts.
3. Find the y-intercept. Let x = 0.
4. Check for multiplicities. If the multiplicity is even,
the graph touches the x-axis at r and turns around. If the
multiplicity is odd, the graph touches the x-axis at r.
The graph will flatten out near the x-intercept when the
multiplicity is greater than one.
5. Use the fact that the maximum number of turning points
of the graph is n − 1, where n is the degree of the
polynomial function, to check whether it is drawn
correctly.
6. Locate additional points.
 Graphing a Polynomial Function
Let’s graph the function f(x) = x³ + 3x² − x − 3

What is it’s end behavior?

If the leading coefficient is positive with an odd degree to its

variable, the graph falls to the left and rises to the right (, ).

Find all the x-intercepts of… f(x) = x³ + 3x² − x − 3

f(x) = (0)³ + (0)² − (0) −

3
Plot the x-intercepts, the y-intercept, and additional points between
and beyond the x-intercepts.

How many turning points does f(x) = x³ + 3x² − x − 3 have?

All of these zeros are to the multiplicity of one. What does the
graph
do at these intercepts? The graph passes through these intercepts.

Sketch the graph.

 3.3
Long Division of
Overvie w Polynomials

Synthetic Division of
Polynomials

The Remainder and Factor Theoram

 Remäinde'i
Dividend Divisor
S U 0 M The 2 and lhe. Jii-isf3r is .t — 4. We begin by
di'vrdenü is fry' — 26i + ranginp them.as ar-
follows:

Neit w'e divide the leading term iii tin dividend by tin leading term in thL divisor to
ge1 the firxt ierni of the quotieni: ö*/.i = fly. Then n'e mültiply the di 'isor by 6i and
xubtrocl the rcsuh fröin .the dividend.

We repnai the proce ss using the last linc —L' 2 xs the

+ dix'idend.

Tire dix'ision process ends when the last line is of lesser degree than the divisor. The
lasl line then eoiitainx the rrni«i»der, and the top line contains the yr‹0f rni. The result
of the division can be interpreted in éiiher of twti waj s.
'f' Synthetic
Divisiondii4sión is a quick method of diúidin@ pol2nomiáls: ii .cán be ufiod when
fiJnthetie
the. divisor is of ne fonn..i — i'. In synthetiü division we wriié ónly the essenliai parti
óf the
ton3 —
division.
7.t‘ + Comp l1i'e
3 by .r — 3. foHdwizig lon'g and
(We”Jl explain howsynthetiC divisJoos,.
to perform In wkicb
the syntketiñ a'e divide
. division in
Exampte 3.j
ong
3 I — 0 3
ivtsioa
7

Note tkat in synthetic di vision we. abbreviae 2x' — 7x'. + 'i by writing
only the. cóefficieùÒ: 2 —7 .0 5, and insiead of x — 3; u'e
simpiy write 3. (Wr iJng 3.instesd of —3 B1Iows us to add instcs;1 òf subtract, but this
changés the sign òf all the oumbers that èppear io Ihe.gold bones. )
TBE OPPER ABD LO\¥Eft B0UM05 THEOREM

4. If we divide Pfr) by z — 6 faith 6 T 0) using synthetic divisimi

and if the ion &a1 oontams die quotient and remamder bas no uegafive
mitiy. then ft is an upper boimd fair the real zems of P.
ÉzMMP LG 5 | Upper.and Lówer Bdun'ds for Zercis of a
Pó)ynómial
Show ihat. all the reaí zeros. of die polynomiál f•(x) = y’ — 3r' -1- Üx — 5 Ire
betwecn

—
3
0 4 ’2 8

By tin U and Lówñr Boueids Tlieorcm. —3 iS''a lower óound. End 2 ii'an upper
hound for'the zeiias. 8 incl ñeitliér —3 rior 2'iS a reto (.the rémairídeis tiré not 0 in the
divis iori tablé1.'all thé reaí:éeros rió bétween si•.
 3.4
Rational Zeros of
Overvie w Polynomials

Descartes
Rule
FINDING IHE RATIOBAŁ ZEROS ßF A
POLYNOMIAL
1. List Possible Zap Łúst alì poșsibìe tăciooal inroa; using ‹he Ratiónal
Z,eœs

2. Divide Uœ syntheñc dirision to evaluate the polynomial at eøch of the

can- didaœi fœ flu milonøl zëms diøi.you found !n $tep 1. When the
remainder is 0,. noig the quoóent.you have obtained,
3. Repeat Repeat Steps 1 2 fa quotient. $top can χnh a
quo tient thøt is quødmlié or føcmra eøsíìy, and note tße quadrañc
formula er iactor to find the. remaining zeros.
EXA át P L E 2 | Finding
Rational Zeros I-’{1) = 2.t’ -+- z' — lk
Factor 1he polyriomiaJ * '6, arid fmd.all its zeró:s.

S 0 L U T10 fl B.y ITié RatinnaJ Zeros Tl›e'urérri the ráüonal' zeror of P.'cae: of the
form
facior o'f coristant.term
po.ssible.rational zeJó of P = factor of leodiñg coefficienl
The constant term is 6 and the leading coefficient is 2, en

póssible raiióiiai 'zePró facaor óf:6

= facior of 2
óf
The factors óf 6 are * 1, *2, *3. *6, and the factors•of 2 are * 1. * 2.
Thux. the possi- b1e rañonal zeus.oI !P ar”e

Simplifying the fracüóns and elirriiiialing dupliéaiés„.we get the folio 'ing list”oi
posiible

-1*-
3
2'

2
ESP P E 4 Usifig Descartes’ Rule
Use Desearías‘ Ruie of Sigfis tü deiennine thé possible number. of pósitive aíid
négñÓve n•al zeros of the polynomiái
Qi) = ?x* + 4.i" + 3*’ — .r —
3
S0L U T1 0 The polynomial has me variation in sign, so it has fine positive.zero.
N Now
h 5 3
P(— ) = 3(—•) + 4(—•) + 3(-=) — (—•) — 3

Sö f’{ —x) has three variotions in sign. Thus,.#(a ). has either three ur une negative
zeru(s).
makinj a total uf either two or four reai zerüs.
TRY!!!
Find the rational zeros of the following
and write in factored form
Answers
 3.5
Arithmetic Operations on
Overvie w Complex Numbers

Square roots of Negative

Numbers

Complex Solution of
Quadratic Equations
number

This means that i ' = — 1. A:complex number .is then a numlnr of nie form o
+ 6i, uhm u and S are real.riurnberx.

Noie iiiäl both the.real ond iiiiaginary paris.of fi compton nuiiiber.aié red
numbers.

EXAH P L E 1 Compl ex N um bers

ThC following are examplex öf complex numbers.
3 + Ir Real part 3, iniagiiiary part
4..

s — yi s. i sin^y s
—y
6i Real paA 0, iniaginary part
6
—7 Real pan —7, ima inär
part 0
* NÖW TRA É'XERCISES S AND..9
 ENGG Adding, Subtracting,.and Multiplying
LE Complex. Numbers
! Express the fdllowing in the form n bi.

( (3 + S‹)(4. — (d) •23

2i)
S 0 L 0 T IO.M
(a) According tñ the definition, wé Add the reâi parts and we add the imaginary
parts.
(3 + 5f) + (4 — ) = (3 + 4) * (S — 1)i - 7 *
3i
(b) (3 + S‹) — (4 — 2 ) - (3 — 4) + ['i — (—2)] - — I+ 7i
(c) (3 + 5‹)(4 — 2i:) - [3 4. — S(—1)] +[3(—2) + 'i • 4]? - 22 + T4i
EURO E 3 I Dividing Complex Numbers
Expres the löllowing in the form:n +
bi.
( 3l + yi 7+4i.3i
— 2i
We maltiply böth the numerator and deriöniinatör by the cmnplex.
jugate coü-
S0L U of the .denominator to make the new denominator a real
T10N
number.
(a) The cnmplex üön)ugate öf 1 — 2i is 1 — 2i = 1 + 2i.
3 + Si 3 + 5i + 1I 7 11
t + i5 f. 5
l — 2i l — 2i
l
7 + 3i
(b) The cnmplex üön)ugate öf7 4*
+ is3i —4i.—4i 12 — 28i =- 3 7,
:4i
Theiefore, 4f —4i 16 4
4
TRY!!!
Evaluate the following and write in the
form of a+bi
Answers
TRY!!!
Evaluate the following and write in the
form of a+bi
Answers
EXAM PLC 6 | Quadratic Equations with Complex Solutions
Solve each
equation.
tax ° + v =o (b) x' + 4s + 5 = 0
S 0 L II T 10 8
(a} The equation z' + 9 = II means . ' = — 9,
en

The solutiuns are therefore 3i and —3i.

(b) By the Quadratic Formula we hnve
-4

4' 2
—4 * 2; 2(—
24 2
2 2 "
SuLhe e —2 + land —2
solufu — 1
TRY!!!
Evaluate the following and write in the
form of a+bi
Answers
 3.7
Rational Functions and
Overvie w Asymptotes

Graphing Rational
Functions

Slant Asymptotes
Asymptot
e:
An asymptote is a straight line that constantly approaches
a given curve but does not meet at any infinite distance. In
other words, Asymptote is a line that a curve approaches
as it moves towards infinity. The curves visit these
asymptotes but never overtake them.

It may be Vertical or Horizontal.

Vertical Asymptote:

The values on which a

function becomes
undefined is known as
Vertical Asymptote.
D£fIH IT10H 07 VERTICAL AUD HORIZONTAL âSYMPT0T
ES

2. The line y = b is z horizontal asvmptote of the function v = /(v) if \ approaches 6 :ts .\ appr‹iaehes *v.
Graph rhe rational funcrioü r(x
) =

fi-in rc¢'pta. — and 4, frörn.r -I- i = 0 and.r — 4 = 0

Jnt'ercept: Nene, hecause r(ft) i s undefined

Vertikal aSym'ptötes. i = 0 and z = —2, from the zeros of rbe

denoinifiälor

- - 0
Z 2. -

Nö'riz'öntäI:.asymptote: \' = , because the deg ee ?f rbe numeratar and the.

degcee of
the denomirrator.are.II\e ssine. and
leading coeff\'cient ob 1
numerator
Reading coeffi cieni.ob dunon inator
" 2
Graph- We use the in£onnation we i ave found, together wide some additional values, to
sketch the graph in Figiue 9.

—3 2.33
—2.5 3.90
—0.5 1.50
1 — 1.f10
3 —0.13
S 0.09

2.r' + 4z

Domain and range: The domnin 0, . w —2}. From the graph we see
is ]x | .c v zange is all real numbers. Iliat the
TRY!!!
Find the Horizontal and Vertical
Asymptotes of the following
Answers