Sensors and

Actuators
Sensors and Actuators
 Types of Sensors
 Sensor calibrations
 Actuators
 Types of Sensor
 Direct sensor: converts the measured
variable into an electrical signal or
modifies an electrical signal by using an
appropriate physical effect.
 Complex sensor: needs one or more
transducers of energy before a direct
sensor can be employed to generate an
electrical output.
 Types of Sensor
 Absolute sensor: it detects a stimulus in
reference to an absolute physical scale that is
independent of the measurement conditions.
Examples:
 Thermistor is an absolute sensor, it is a
temperature-sensitive resistor. Its electrical
resistance directly relates to the absolute
temperature scale of Kelvin.
 An absolute pressure sensor produces signal in
reference to vacuum – an absolute zero on a
pressure scale.
 Types of Sensor
 Relative sensor: it produces a signal that relates
to some special case.
 Examples: Thermocouple is a relative sensor that
produces an electric voltage, which is a function of
a temperature gradient across the thermocouple
wires. The sensor output signal cannot be related
to any particular temperature without referencing
to a known baseline. A relative pressure sensor
produces signal with respect to a selected
baseline that is not zero pressure, for example, to
the atmospheric pressure.
 Types of Sensor
 Passive sensor: it does not need any
additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to
an external stimulus. That is, the input
stimulus energy is converted by the
sensor into the output signal. Most of
passive sensors are direct sensors as we
defined them earlier. Example: a
thermocouple, a photodiode, and a
piezoelectric sensor.
 Types of Sensor
 Active Sensor: it requires external power for
its operation, which is called an excitation
signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to
produce the output signal.
 Example: a thermistor is a temperature
sensitive resistor. It does not generate any
electric signal, but by passing an electric
current through it (excitation signal) its
resistance can be measured by detecting
variations in current and/or voltage across the
thermistor.
 Sensor Calibrations
 Calibrate means “to check, adjust, or
determine by comparison with a standard”.
Calibration is a “comparison between
measurements”.
 Sensor Calibration is the relationship between the physical
measurement variable (X) and the signal variable (S).
 The purpose of the calibration is to find the unknown
coefficients (parameters) of the sensor transfer function so
that the fully defined function can be employed during the
measurement process to compute any stimulus in the
desirable range, not only at the points used during the
calibration.
 Sensor Calibrations
 Calibrate means “to check, adjust, or
determine by comparison with a standard”.
Calibration is a “comparison between
measurements”.
 Sensor Calibration is the relationship between the physical
measurement variable (X) and the signal variable (S).
 The purpose of the calibration is to find the unknown
coefficients (parameters) of the sensor transfer function so
that the fully defined function can be employed during the
measurement process to compute any stimulus in the
desirable range, not only at the points used during the
calibration.
 Why Calibrate?
 No sensor is perfect.
 Sample to sample manufacturing variations
mean that even two sensors from the same
manufacturer production run may yield slightly
different readings.
 Differences in sensor design mean two different
sensors may respond differently in similar
conditions. This is especially true of ‘indirect’
sensors that calculate a measurement based on
one or more actual measurements of some
different, but related parameter.
 Why Calibrate?
 Sensors subject to heat, cold, shock, humidity etc.
during storage, shipment and/or assembly may show
a change in response.
 Some sensor technologies 'age' and their response
will naturally change over time - requiring periodic re-
calibration.
 With analog sensors, your ADC is part of the
measurement system and subject to variability as
well.
 Temperature measurements are subject to thermal
gradients between the sensor and the measurement
point.
 Why Calibrate?
 Light and color sensors can be affected by
spectral distribution, ambient light, specular
reflections and other optical phenomena.
 Inertial sensors almost always have some
'zero offset' error and are sensitive to
alignment with the system being measured.
 What makes a good
Sensor?
 The two most important characteristic of a
sensor are:
 Precision - The ideal sensor will always
produce the same output for the same input.
 Resolution - A good sensor will be able to
reliably detect small changes in themeasured
parameter.
 What affects precision?
 Noise - All measurement systems are subject
to random noise to some degree.
Measurement systems with a low Signal to
Noise Ratio will have problems making
repeatable measurements.
 What affects precision?
 Hysteresis - Some types of sensors also
exhibit hysteresis. The sensor will tend to read
low with an increasing signal and high with a
decreasing signal as shown in the graph
below.
 Other Important Qualities in
a Sensor
 Linearity - A sensor whose output is
directly proportional to the input is said
to be linear. This eliminates the need to
do any complex curve-fitting and
simplifies the calibration process.
 Speed - All else being equal, a sensor
that can produce precise readings faster
is a good thing to have.
Errors in Response
 How do we Calibrate
 Standard References
 If it is important to get accurate readings in some standard units,
you will need a Standard Reference to calibrate against.
 A calibrated sensor: If you have a sensor or instrument that is known
to be accurate. It can be used to make reference readings for
comparison. Most laboratories will have instruments that have been
calibrated against NIST standards.
 A standard physical reference: Reasonably accurate physical
standards can be used as standard references for some types of
sensors
 Rangefinders: Rulers and Meter sticks
 Temperature Sensors: Boiling Water - 100°C at sea-level and Ice-
water Bath - The "Triple Point" of water is 0.01°C at sea-level
 Accelerometers: Gravity is a constant 1G on the surface of the earth.
 How do we Calibrate
 The Characteristic Curve
 Characteristic Curve – Each sensor will have a ‘characteristic curve’
that defines the sensor’s response to an input. The calibration process
maps the sensor’s response to an ideal linear response. How to best
accomplish that depends on the nature of the characteristic curve..
 Offset – An offset means that the sensor output is higher or lower than
the ideal output. Offsets are easy to correct with a single-point
calibration.
 Sensitivity or Slope – A difference in slope means that the sensor
output changes at a different rate than the ideal. The Two-point
calibration process can correct differences in slope.
 Linearity – Very few sensors have a completely linear characteristic
curve. Some are linear enough over the measurement range that it is
not a problem. But some sensors will require more complex
calculations to linearize the output.
 Calibration Methods
 One Point Calibration
 Two Point Calibration
 Multi-Point Curve Fitting
 Calibration Methods
 One Point Calibration
 What is an Actuator?
 A device that converts data signals into a
useful modification of the environment
 Human example:
 The brain sends an electro-chemical signal down
a motor pathway to a peripheral nerve causing a
muscle to contract
 Computer Example:
 A processor generates a PWM signal (and a set of
related logic signals) to an LMD18200 chip which
converts these to a control voltage causing a DC
motor to turn at a set speed in a set direction
 Why Do We Need Sensors
and Actuators?
 Information about the world exists in different
modalities
 i.e., how things look, feel, sound, taste …
 Behind these modalities (and our ability to interact
with them) is a physical system
 made up of space, energy and matter
 To function in the world, we need to
 interface with available modalities of information without
having to worry about the underlying physics
 To do this, we need to sense, fuse, interpret and
react to the world as a modal system
 sensors and actuators use physical laws to handle the
modal information interface at a level of abstraction we can
handle
 Why Do Computer Systems
Need Sensors and Actuators?
 To interface with an environment on our behalf
 Constant and/or repetitive task

e.g., keeping track of long-term relatively stable conditions
so it can take quick direct action when an anomaly occurs
 Dangerous, hostile and/or remote environments

bomb defusing, nuclear disaster area, trips to Mars, etc.
 To extend our abilities to sense and control
 An IR or UV sensor can ‘see’ things we can’t
 A heat sensor can provide a more accurate temp.
 A robot arm can lift heavy objects and position them
with greater accuracy
Quantities to be Sensed
 Position, direction, distance and motion
 Light and radiation
 Temperature
 Strain and pressure
 Sound
 Solids, liquids and gases

Moisture (humidity)

Flow

Liquid acidity/alkalinity

Chemicals (e.g. CO)

Particles (e.g. smoke)
How Do Computer-Based
Sensors and Actuators
Work?
 Biological processors use complex analog
electro-chemical signals, but digital
computers use signals that only consist of
a high and low voltage level
 Thus, computer-based sensor and
actuator systems must convert all
modalities of sensor input into a
meaningful set of these two voltage levels
 To understand how this is done, we need
to first review a little basic physics
 The Physics Behind
Modality
 The driving engine of the physical universe is
energy, not matter
 In fact, one unifying theory of physics, called String
Theory, claims that matter is just a form of energy
 What we perceive as modalities are really just
different forms of three type of energy
 Electromagnetic radiation
 Motion (or displacement) of matter
 Chemical bonding
 Very specialized computer sensors can detect
other forms of energy, but we will not cover these
 Electromagnetic Radiation

/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html)
/MicroWorlds
(source: http://www.lbl.gov
 We see a very small part of the EM spectrum (0.7-0.4 M)
 We emit IR radiation (~10 M)
 Computer sensors and actuators can be designed to ‘see’
and emit almost any part of the spectrum
 Motion
 Macro Displacement
 sensors can detect motion
 actuators can move the system or surrounding objects
 Heat (atomic and molecular movement)
 sensors can detect ambient or radiating body heat
 almost all actuators will generate waste heat even if you do
not want them to
 Sound (compressional waves)
 needs a medium for transmission (I.e., cannot travel
through a vacuum)
 computer sensors can detect and actuators can generate
compressional waves over a much broader range than
humans
 Chemical Bonding
 Undetectable to us, are a set of forces that
hold matter together
 At the molecular level, these forces control
the way chemicals bond
 Our bodies
 use bonding receptors to smell and taste
 generate chemical compounds that can carry
information about our physical (and mental) state
 Current computer sensors/actuators are poor
detectors and generators of such information
 Tapping Into the
Energy Information Pipeline
 For a computer sensor or actuator to work
 they need to understand

the language of the world: information modality
based on energy transmission

the language of the computer: information
transmission based on discrete logic
 have an internal way to store and convert
between these languages
 Since computers are electronic systems,
the best way for computer sensors or
actuators to do this is via electronics
 The Tapping Tools
 Electricity
 current, voltage, resistance and power
 Ohm’s law
 capacitance, but not inductance
 Electronics
 semiconductors (a very brief overview of theory)
 resistors, capacitors, diodes, and transistors
 integrated and discrete circuits

Note: integrated circuits are normally abbreviated as
ICs
Sensor Types
 Position, direction, distance and
motion
 Accelerometer
 Gyroscopes
 Compass
 Motion

 Applications
 Security
 Locator
 Tracking
Sensor Types
 Light, radiation and temperature
 Camera
 Light sensors
 Radiation sensors
 Temperature sensors

 Applications
 Security, location, tracking
 Health safety
 Energy efficiency
Sensor Types
 Sound
 Microphone

 Applications
 Security
 Volume control
 Speech recognition
Sensor Types
 Solids, liquids and gases
 Humidity
 Rain
 Carbon dioxide
 pH
 Flow

 Applications
 Pool maintenance
 Sprinkler efficiency
 Security and health monitoring
Sensor Types
 Analog Vs Digital

 Scalar vs Vector
Sensor Types
 Analog Vs Digital
Sensor Types
 Analog Vs Digital
 Digital sensors produce a discrete digital voltage or
signal that is considered to be a digital
representation of a measurement. This sensor
will display binary output in ones and zeros. Digital
sensors tend to be considerably less expensive when
compared to analog ones. These sensors are known
to have a fast transmission rate as well as negligible
distortion.
 Analog sensors are much different than digital
sensors and typically have less features. These
sensors create what is known as an analog signal,
which is a continuous signal that represents a
quantity. An analog sensor trades efficiency for a
more continuous and slightly more accurate signal.
Sensor Types
 Scalar vs Vector Sensors
 The sensor which produce output
signal/voltage which is proportional to
magnitude of quantity to be measured is
known as scalar sensor.
 Temperature of a room is measured using
scalar sensor (i.e. thermometer or
thermocouple) which measures
temperature changes irrespective of sensor
orientation.
 Examples:
Temperature sensor, Color sensor, pressure
sensor, strain sensor etc.
Sensor Types
 Scalar vs Vector Sensors
 The sensor which produce output
signal/voltage which is proportional to
magnitude, direction as well as orientation
of quantity being measured is known as
Vector sensor.
 Acceleration of body is measured using
accelerometer which measures component
of acceleration of body with respect to x, y,
z coordinate axes.
 Examples:
Sound sensor, image sensor, velocity
sensor, acceleration sensor etc.
Actuator Types
 Indicators

Light

Sound

Vibration
 Motion

Relays/switches

Motors

Solenoids
 Exotic

Shape metals

EM emitters EM

Explosives
Actuator Types
 Displays
 Text
 Graphics
 Sound
 Voice generation
 Exotic
 Language generation
 Holographic projections
Sensor Characteristics
 Range: It is the minimum and
maximum value of physical
variable that the sensor can sense
or measure. For example,
a Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD) for the
measurement of temperature has
a range of -200 to 800oC
Sensor Characteristics
 Span: It is the difference between
the maximum and minimum
values of input. In above example,
the span of RTD is 800 – (-200) =
1000oC.
Sensor Characteristics
 Accuracy: The error in
measurement is specified in terms
of accuracy. It is defined as the
difference between measured
value and true value. It is defined
in terms of % of full scale or % of
reading.
Sensor Characteristics
 Xt is calculated by taking mean of
infnite number of measurements.
Sensor Characteristics
 Precision: It is defined as the closeness among a set of
values. It is different from accuracy.
 Let Xt be the true value of the variable X and a random
experiment measures X1, X2, …. Xi as the value of X.
 We will say our measurements X1, X2,… Xi are precise
when they are very near to each other but not
necessarily close to true value Xt.
 However, if we say X1, X2,… Xi are accurate, it means
that they are close to true value Xt and hence they are
also close to each other.
 Hence accurate measurements are always precise.
Sensor Characteristics
 Precision:
Sensor Characteristics
 Sensitivity: It is the ratio of change
in output to change in input. If Y be
the output quantity in response to
input X, then sensitivity S can be
expressed as
Sensor Characteristics
 Linearity: Linearity is the
maximum deviation between the
measured values of a sensor from
ideal curve.
Sensor Characteristics
 Hysteresis: It is the difference in
output when input is varied in two
ways- increasing and decreasing.
Sensor Characteristics
Resolution: It is the minimum change in input that can be
sensed by the sensor.
Reproducibility: It is defined as the ability of sensor to
produce the same output when same input is applied.
Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of sensor to
produce the same output every time when the same input
is applied and all the physical and measurement conditions
kept the same including the operator, instrument, ambient
conditions etc.
Response Time: It is generally expressed as the time at
which the output reaches a certain percentage (for
instance, 95%) of its final value, in response to a step
change of the input.
Sensor Installation
 Placement
 Environment
 Interference
 Aesthetics
 Power
 120VAC, wired DC, battery, solar
 Combined with data lines (CAT5)
Sensor Interfacing and
Control
 Interfacing
 Wireless (50MHz, 900MHz, 2.4GHz, …)
 Serial (9/25 wire), CAT5 (8 wire), phone (4 wire)
 Coax, fiber optic
 Bus (networking)
 Control
 Identification
 Calibration
 Parameter settings
 “Smart” features
Sensor Networking
 Considerations:

Communication Bandwidth

Infrastructure / ad-hoc network structure ?

Wireless / wired sensors ?

Distributed / centralized processing ?

“Smart” / “dumb” sensors ?

Data Security / Privacy

Wireless / wired network ?

Distributed / centralized databases ?

Processed / raw data ?

Infrastructure Requirements

Powerline / specialized data network ?

Standalone / integrated sensors ?
Sensor Processing
 Smart Sensors
 Integration of Processing and Sensor
Elements

Distributed detection of sensor events

Transmission only of unusual / changing
information

Filtering of sensor data at the sensor site
 Integration of Networking and Sensor

Sensor can serve as a service (data is requested)

Sensor site can direct its information at a specific
processing node / database