Visual
Inspection
1
Destructive
Testing Vs
Non Destructive
Testing
Destructive testing comprises of various
test methods where the specimen is
destroyed/ damaged/ broken to determine
the physical and mechanical properties.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) involves
wide range of techniques for determining
the characteristics of materials and to
locate the defect without damaging the
specimen.
2
Destructive
Testing
• Advantages
1. Measurements are direct and
reliable
2. Usually quantitative measurements
3. Correlation between test
measurements and material
properties are direct
3
Destructive
Testing
• Disadvantages
1. Damages the specimen
2. Single test may measure only one or
few of the properties
3. In-service testing is not possible
4. Qualitative measurements are not
possible.
4
Non Destructive
Testing
• Advantages
1. Does not damages the specimen
2. 100% testing on actual components is
possible
3. In service testing is possible, so break
down can be prevented.
4. Repeated checksover a period of
time are possible to reduce
accidents and safety issues.
5
Non Destructive
Testing
• Disadvantages
1. High initial investment required
2. Skilled and experienced worker is
required to conduct the test and to
interpret the result.
6
Scope of
• To provide NDT
quality control of a product
during manufacturing stage or during
fabrication.
• To ensure that an item confirms to
required specification.
• To examine a plant, equipment or
components during service to ensure that
the requirements are met and to prevent
breakdown or failure.
• As a diagnostic tool in research and 7
Type of
defects
• Inherent defects – Caused during the
initial production of the base / raw
materials
• Processing defects – Caused during
processing of the material or part
• Service defects – Caused
during the operating cycle of the
material or part
8
Introduction to Visual
Inspection
9
10
Types of Visual Inspection
(VI)
1. Direct visual testing
2. Remote/ Indirect visual
testing
11
Direct Visual
Testing
• Inspection using naked
eye, magnifying lenses, Mirrors etc
12
Remote/ Indirect visual
testing
• Fiberscope, bore scope, robotic crawlers etc
are used
13
Microscope
• Microscope a combination of lenses used to
magnify the image of a small object.
• The object is placed close to the lens to obtain
as high magnification as possible.
Bore scope
• Bore scope is an instrument designed to enable
an observer to inspect the inside surface of
narrow tubes, bores, chambers etc.
• It consists of precision built in illumination
system having a complex arrangement of
prisms and plain lenses through which light is
passed to the observer with maximum
efficiency.
14
Endoscope
• An endoscope is almost similar to bore
scope.
• Endoscope has a superior optical system
and a high intensity light source.
Fibre optic bore scope (Fibrescope)
• A flexible fibre optic bore scope permits
the instrument to access corners and
through passages with several
directional changes.
• It is designed to provide sharp and clear
images of parts and interior surfaces that
are normally impossible to inspect. 15
Fiberscope & Bore
scope
16
Telescope / CCTV
• Telescope is used to obtain magnified
images of objects at considerable
distance from the observer.
• It is particularly use full for providing
visual examination of the surface which is
other wise inaccessible.
• A Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) can be
also used for inspecting inaccessible
areas.
17
Robotic crawlers
(Eg. For inspecting crude oil pipelines)
18
Applications of visual
inspection
• Inspection of plant/ systems/
component for any leakage,
abnormal operation etc…
• Misalignment of parts in equipments
• Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fractures etc
• Defects in weldments such as surface
cracks, lack of penetration, porosities etc
19
Visual
Inspection
20
Fundamentals of visual
testing
1. Vision
• Human eye is the most valuable NDT
tool
• Sensitivity of human eye varies according
to varying light sources.
• For maintaining efficiency, a human
operator is not allowed to work for more
than 2 hours continuously.
21
Fundamentals of visual
testing 2. Lighting
• Proper lighting plays vital role in VI
• Improper lighting results in poor quality
images even under high magnification
• Amount of light required depends on type of
test, importance of accuracy, glare and
operator’s visual capability.
• For VI, suitable lighting of about 800-1000
lux is required.
• Light sources: Incandescent lamps, fluorescent
lamps & high intensity discharge lamps.
22
Fundamentals of visual
testing
3. Material
Attributes be
• Cleanliness: Test surface cleaned
should properly
• Colour: Colour of surface determines
colour of lighting to be used.
• Physical conditions of test surface like
texture, shape, size & contour determines
the tool & type of lighting to be used.
23
Fundamentals of visual
testing
4. Environmental Factors
• Atmosphere: Clean & clear atmosphere
provides good test results
• Humidity & temperature levels of test surface
should be considered before finalizing the
inspection tool.
• Safety of the operator should be
considered in risky environments.
(Eg: Using robotic crawlers instead of human
operator for inspecting long crude oil
pipelines) 24
Computer enhanced visual inspection
system
25
Computer enhanced visual inspection
system
1. Process control
•system
Controls overall inspection
process
• Provides commands and signals
to control
system’s database.
2. Sensing system
• Provides adequate illumination
26
Computer enhanced visual inspection
system
3. Image processingsystem captures,
processes and detects defects/ flaws in
the images.
4. Flaw analysis system examines the
defects/ flaws on images received from
image processing system.
5. The micro processor/ soft ware then
decides whether the specimen is to be
accepted or rejected.
27
Computer enhanced visual inspection
system
Advantage
• The system s can be re
programmedand can be used to inspect
wide range of products
• Can be operated through out
the day with out intervals
• Increased speed of inspection compared
to human operator
• Consistency of inspection can be
maintained.
• 100% inspection of products is possible.
28
Computer enhanced visual inspection
system
Disadvantage
• Skilled labor sis required
• Initial investment is high
• Complex programming is
required
• Complex lighting system is
required
• Real time decision making is
impossible.
29
MODULE 2
Liquid Penetrant
Inspection
30
Liquid Penetrant
Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI)
also known as Dye penetrant
inspection (DPI) or penetrant testing
(PT), is a widely applied low- cost
inspection method for locating surface-
breaking defects in all non-porous
materials like metals, plastics or
ceramics.
31
Liquid Penetrant
Inspection
32
33
LPI – Working
principle
1. Capillary action
• Also known as capillarity or capillary motion or
wicking is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow
spaces without the assistance of (or even in
opposition to) external forces like gravity.
2. Surface tension
• The cohesive/ attractive force between liquid
molecules
34
Desirable properties of
penetrants
1. Wetting ability - Good wetting ability improves
penetrability and bleed-back characteristics.
2. Less Volatile - Highly volatile penetrant
chemicals would evaporate too quickly to be
practical.
3. Chemically inert - Penetrant materials should be
inert and non-corrosive in nature.
4.Viscosity
• Viscosity relates to the thickness or body of a
fluid and is a result of molecular or internal
friction.
• Excessive viscosity results in long dwell times,
low viscosity leads to reduced dwell times but
makes the penetrant prone to over washing. 35
Desirable properties of
penetrants
5. Solubility - A penetrant must hold
sufficient dye at ambient or high
temperature and the dye must not come
out of solution if the temperature drops.
6. Health hazard - Penetrant used should
be non poisonous in nature and should
comply with most stringent health and
safety requirements.
7. Availability – Penetrants should be easily
and cheaply available. 36
Types of Penetrant
Penetrant comes in two basic types
37
LPI
Kits
38
Advantages of
• LPI
The method has high sensitivity even to small
surface discontinuities.
• Materials including metallic and nonmetallic,
magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and
nonconductive materials can be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials
can be inspected rapidly and at comparatively
low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are
routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of
the part and constitute a visual representation
of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials
very portable. 39
•
Disadvantages of LPI
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relatively
nonporous surface can be
inspected.
• Pre cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask
defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding,
and grit or vapor blasting must be
removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector musthave direct access to
the surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection
sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and40
Interpretation of LPI
results
41
Interpretation of LPI
results
42
Applications of
LPI
• LPI can be effectively used to detect
surface discontinuities such as cracks,
porosity, seams, cold shuts, lamination
and poor weld joints on non porous
metallic or non metallic, ferrous or non
ferrous materials.
43
Applications of
LPI
1. Aerospace: Uses LPI to ensure quality
during production and for regular
maintenance and safety checks.
• Turbine blades, rotor discs, forged
components, weld joints…
2. Automobile: Aluminium engine castings,
piston, cylinder head…
44
Applications of
LPI
3. Railway: LPI is used to detect fatigue
cracking during regular in service safety
checks of the bogie frames.
4. Tools & Dies: Drilling equipments, tools
and dies are inspected by using LPI.
5. Reactors and tanks: Tanks, vessels,
pumps, and reactors are inspected by
using LPI.
45
MODULE 3
Magnetic Particle
Inspection
46
Magnetic Particle Inspection
47
MPI
• Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-
destructive testing (NDT) method for
detecting surface and slightly subsurface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of
their alloys. The process introduces a
magnetic field into the part.
48
MPI
49
Basic physics of
magnetism
1. Polarity
2. Magnetic force
3. Magnetic field
4. Permeability
5. Flux density
6. Magnetizing
force
7. Cohesive force
8. Retentivity
9. Residual
magnetism 50
Basic physics of
magnetism
1. Polarity:
• In magnetism, polarity refers to the
orientation of north and south poles in
space
• Example: The end of a freely suspended
magnetized pole pointing towards north is
called north pole and other end is called
south pole.
51
Basic physics of
magnetism
2. Magnetic force:
• Magnetic force is a force of attraction or
repulsion that one body has upon other.
• Example: Opposite poles attracts each
other while similar poles repels each
other.
52
Basic physics of
magnetism
3. Magnetic field:
• Magnetic field is the area around a
magnet in which the magnetic forces
are observable.
53
Basic physics of
magnetism
4. Permeability (µ):
• Permeability is the ease with which a
material can be magnetized.
• Materials which gets under
magnetized magnetizing
forces are said to permeability. low
have
high
54
Basic physics of
magnetism
5. Flux density:
• Flux density is defined as
the number of lines of magnetic
force per unit area.
• Flux density is measured in Gauss (B)
55
Basic physics of
magnetism
6. Magnetizing force (H):
• It is the force which tends to set up
magnetic flux in a material.
56
Basic physics of
magnetism
7. Cohesive force:
• Cohesive force is the measure of ability of
a ferromagnetic material to withstand an
external magnetic field without becoming
demagnetized.
57
Basic physics of
magnetism
8. Retentivity:
• The ability of a coil to retain some of its
magnetism within the core after the
magnetization process has stopped is
known as retentivity.
58
Basic physics of
magnetism
9. Residual magnetism:
• Residual magnetism is defined as the
amount of magnetism left behind after
removing the external magnetic field
from the circuit.
59
Continuous testing of
MPI
• Continuous testing means that the
magnetic particles are applied while the
current is still flowing through the
specimen.
60
Continuous testing of
MPI
• Classifications
1. Dry continuous – The term dry means that
dry magnetic particles are applied in
fine particle form.
2. Wet continuous – The term wet means
that the magnetic particles applied are
suspended in a liquid carrier. (Eg. –
Kerosene, Petroleum distillates, Water +
additives)
61
Dry
Continuous
• Advantages
1. Easy to apply and clean
2. Less hazardous
• Disadvantages
1. Mobility of particle is less
2. Curved or complex shapes cannot
be inspected
62
Wet
Continuous
• Advantages
1. Mobility of particle is more compared to
dry type
2. Curved or complex shapes can be easily
inspected
• Disadvantages
1. Post cleaning is difficult
2. Hazardous & corrosive in nature 63
Residual Technique of
MPI
• In residual technique, magnetic particles
are applied after current supply is
ceased.
• The material should have sufficiently high
retentivity to retain magnetization force
for performing the test.
64
Residual Technique of
MPI
• Dry residual technique: In this method, dry
magnetic particles are used after the
magnetization force has ceased.
• Wet residual technique: In this method,
magnetic particle suspension is used after
the magnetization force has ceased.
65
Advantages of
MPI
• It is quick and relatively uncomplicated
• It gives immediate indications of defects
• It shows surface and near surface
defects
• The method can beadapted
for site or workshop use
• It is inexpensive compared to radiography
method
• Large or small objects can be examined
• Elaborate pre-cleaning is not necessary 66
Disadvantages of
• MPI to ferromagnetic materials
It is restricted
• Only surface and near surface cracks can be
detected
• Most methods need supply of electricity
• It issometimes unclear whether the
magnetic field is sufficiently strong
to give good indications
• The method cannot be used if a thick paint
coating is present
• False or non-relevant indications,
are probable, and thus
interpretation is a skilled task 67
MODULE 4
Ultrasonic
Testing
68
Ultrasonic
• testing
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a type of non-
destructive testing technique based
on the propagation of ultrasonic waves
to the object or material to be tested
69
UT
70
Ultrasonic
waves
• Sound waves having frequency
above 20kHz are termed as
ultrasonic waves.
• Usual frequency range for NDT of
materials is 0.5 –
10 MHz
• To detect fine cracks high
frequency waves are required.
71
Working
principle
• UT system consists of a pulser, reciever,
transducer & display devices.
• Pulser/ reciever is an electronic
device that can produce high
frequency ultrasonic waves.
• Sound energy propagates
through the material in the
form of waves.
• When the sound wave met
with a flaw/ crack/ discontinuity, it
will reflect back to the receiver.
• The reflected wave is then converted into 72
Ultrasonic testing
1. techniques
Transmission
method
2. Pulse – echo
method
73
Ultrasonic testing
1. techniques
Transmission
method
74
Ultrasonic testing
2. techniques
Pulse – echo
method
75
MODULE 5
Radiography
Testing
76
Radiography Testing (RT)
77
78
Properties of X rays and Gamma
rays
1. They are invisible and travels at the speed
of light.
2. Propagates through straight path.
3. Not affected by electric and magnetic
fields
4. Capable of ionizing gases
5. Capable of blackening photographic film
6. Can damage living cells & produce genetic
mutation
7. Exhibit waveproperties like 79
80
Real time
radiography
81
Interpretation of results
• Gas porosity – Appears as round or
elongated dark spots
• Slag inclusion – Appears as dark
irregular shapes
• Incomplete penetration of weld joint –
Appears as continuous or intermittent
dark lines of uniform width , occurring
in the middle of the weld.
• Cracks – Appears as sharp lines with
tapered ends
82
Interpretation of welding
radiographs
83
Safety aspects required in
radiography
• Protection of person
• Monitoring radiation dosage
84
Safety aspects required in radiography
• Protection of person
1. Exposure time: Reduce exposure time to
radiations to as minimum as possible.
• Time of handling can be reduced by
providing proper training & by adopting
fast work techniques.
2. Distance: Radiation intensity reduces as
the distance from source increases.
Worker should stay as far as possible
from the source.
85
Safety aspects required in
radiography
•
3. Protection
Shielding: of person
Provide shieldi betwee
proper
operator and ng n
• source.
Dense & heavy provid improv
shielding protection es ed
against radiation.
• E,g.: Steel.
86
Safety aspects required in
radiography
• Monitoring radiation dosage
1. Film badge:
87
Safety aspects required in
radiography
• Monitoring radiation dosage
2. Thermoluminescent dosimeters
3. Direct reading / Pen dosimeters
88
Applications of radiography testing
89
90
Advantages and disadvantages of
radiography testing
91
MODULE 6
Eddy Current
Testing
92
Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
93
Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
94
ECT
95
ECT Results
96
Eddy Current
• Definition
• Eddy current is defined as oscillating
electrical currents induced in a
conductive material by an alternating
magnetic field, due to electro magnetic
induction.
97
Eddy Current Testing – Working Principle
• In ECT, an AC of frequency 1 kHz – 2
kHz is made to flow in a coil which in
turn, produces an alternating magnetic
field around it.
• Coil when kept close to the conducting
metallic test specimen, induces an eddy
current flow in the material due to
electro magnetic induction.
• Eddy current generated are parallel to
the coil winding.
98
Eddy Current Testing – Working Principle
• Eddy current in turn generates an
alternating magnetic field, which may be
detected as a voltage across a
secondary coil
• When a flaw is introduced, the eddy
currents are disrupted
• These disruptions are detected by
sensors and displayed through display
systems.
99
Physics aspects of ECT
1. Conductivity
• Eddy current will be induced in
conductive materials only.
• Conductivity is the measure of how
easily the current can flow
through a material
• Conductivity of a material is affected by
1. Chemical composition of the specimen
2. Heat treatment process applied
3. Working temperature
100
Physics aspects of ECT
2. Permeability
• Magnetic permeability is the ratio of
magnetic flux density to the
magnetizing force of the coil
101
Physics aspects of ECT
3. Resistivity
• Resistivity is the resistance offered by a
material against electrical current to
pass through it.
• Increased resistivity of a material
converts electrical energy into heat, light
or other forms of energy.
102
Physics aspects of ECT
4. Inductance
• Self inductance is the property of a circuit
where by a change in current causes a
change in voltage in the same circuit.
• Mutual inductance happens when one
circuit induces current flow in a near by
second coil.
103
Physics aspects of ECT
5. Inductive Reactance
• Induced current which works against the
primary current results in a reduction of
current flow in the circuit.
• The reduction of current flow in a circuit
as a result of induction is called
inductive reactance.
104
Physics aspects of ECT
6. Impedance
• Impedance is the totalopposition
that a circuit presents to AC
• Impedance consists of
Resistance (R), Inductive
reactance (XL) and Capacitive
reactance (XC)
105
Fill / Field
• Factor
Fill factor is used to measure how well the coil
fills the test piece.
• The coil wires should be as close as possible
to the test piece, in order to have greater
response to cracks
• Fill factor should be as near as unity.
106
Lift off effect
• The distance between coil and the test
surface is called lift off.
• Lift off has significant effect on
sensitivity of ECT
• The closer the lift off, the more denser
will be the eddy current generated.
107
Edge effect
• Edge effect is the phenomenon
that occurs when an inspection
coil is at the end of the test piece
• At that instance, eddy current flow is distorted
as current cannot flow at the edge
• Effect can be avoided by placing a balancing
probe near to the edge.
108
End effect
• End effect is defined
magnetic
as the field, eddy current
disturbance of distribution
and impedance when the coil is placed
near a change in geometry.
109
Depth of penetration
• Eddy current concentrates near the surface
of test piece and strength decreases with
distance from coil increases.
• The phenomenon by which eddy current
density decreases with increase in
depth is known as skin effect
• Standard depth of penetration or skin depth is
the distance from surface of the specimen,
where the eddy current has reduced to
37% of its surface value.
110
Eddy current concentrates near the
surface and strength decreases as
distance from coil increases.
111
Standard depth of penetration
112
Frequency & depth of
penetration
• δ = Standard depth of penetration (mm)
• σ = Conductivity
• µ = Relative permeability
• f = Test frequency (Hz)
As frequency increases, depth of penetration
decreases
113
Applications of ECT
1. Detection of defects
• Defects/ discontinuities are detected when
they disrupt the path of eddy currents and
weaken their strength.
• High frequency AC is used for checking
surface flaws
• Low frequency AC is used for attaining
increased depth of penetration for
inspecting sub surface flaws.
114
Applications of ECT
2. Conductivity Measurement
• As the conductivity of the test material
increases, resistant loss will be less and
inductive reactance changes will be
greater.
• This intensifies the eddy current
generated.
• Intensity of eddy current generated is
directly related to conductivity of the
specimen.
115
Applications of ECT
3. Coating thickness
measurement
116
Applications of ECT
3. Coating thickness measurement
• Non conducting coating increases the lift
off distance between eddy current probe
and conducting base, which weakens the
strength of eddy current generated
• This reduction in strength is measured,
which is closely related to coating
thickness.
117
Applications of ECT
4. Thickness measurement of specimens
• ECT are used to measure the thickness
of hot sheets, strips and foils in rolling
mills.
• Also used to measure the sheet metal
thickness of aircrafts and marine
vessels.
• During the test, reduction in eddy
current strength is measured, which is
closely related to specimen thickness.
118
Advantages of ECT
119
Limitations of ECT
120
