Unit 4

Database Management System

4.1 Introduction to DBMS
 A database is an organized collection of logically related data
that contains information relevant to an enterprise. The
database is also called the repository or container for a
collection of data files. E.g. College database consists of data
related to students such as name, course, faculty, grade, fee
etc.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of
programs that is used to store, retrieve and manipulate the
data in convenient and efficient way. A database system
consists of database, database management system and
application programs. DBMS that maintains relationship
between multiple data files is called Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS). E.g. Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft
SQL Server, Postgres, MS-Access etc.
4.2 Database Models
A database model or simply a data model is an abstract
model that describes how the data is represented and used. A
database model provides the necessary means to achieve data
abstraction. Data abstraction can be defined as database
system highlighting only the essential features and hiding
storage and data organization details from user. There are
different database models which are as follows:
1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-Relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object Oriented Model
1. Hierarchical Model: In this model, different records are inter-
related through hierarchical or tree-like structure. The root may
have number of descendants and each of these descendants may
have any number of lower descendants.
2. Network Model: In this model we represent complex data
relationships more effectively when compared to hierarchical
models, to improve database performance and standards. It has
entities which are organized in a graphical representation and
some entities are accessed through several paths. A User
perceives the network model as a collection of records in 1:M
relationships.
3. Entity-Relationship Model: In an ER Model a database can
be modeled as a collection of entities and relationship among
entities. It is overall logical structure of a database expressed
graphically by E-R diagram. The basic components of this
diagram are
a. Rectangle (represents entity sets)
b. Ellipses (represents attributes)
c. Diamonds (represents relationship sets among entity sets)
d. Lines (link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to
relationship sets)
Fig: E-R Diagram
4. Relational Model: It represents the database as a collection of
relations. All data is maintained in the form of tables consisting
of rows and columns. Each row represents an entity and a
column represents an attributes of the entity. The relationship
between the two tables is implemented through a common
attribute in the table and are known as primary key and foreign
key.
1. Primary Key: A primary key is a set of attributes that is used
for identifying records uniquely. Primary key must satisfy
following two characteristics:
a. It cannot be null.
b. It cannot be duplicate.
2. Foreign Key: A foreign key is an attribute or combination of
attribute that is used to establish and enforce relationship
between two relations (table). A set of attributes that reference
primary key of another table is called foreign key.
5. Object Oriented Model: It is based on object-oriented
programming paradigm. Object oriented data model is based
upon real world situations. These situations are represented as
objects, with different attributes.
a. Objects: The real world entities and situations are represented
as objects in the Object oriented database model.
b. Attributes and Method: Every object has certain
characteristics. These are represented using Attributes. The
behavior of the objects is represented using Methods.
c. Class : Similar attributes and methods are grouped together
using a class.
d. Inheritance: A new class can be derived from the original class.
The derived class contains attributes and methods of the original
class as well as its own.
 Calculate

Fig. Object oriented data model

4.3 Database Design
Database design is a collection of processes that facilitates the
designing, development, implementation and maintenance of
enterprise data management systems. Properly designed
database is easy to maintain, improve data consistency and are
cost effective in terms of storage. Typical database design
process includes:
1. Identify Entities: Anything that are kept in database is called
entity. E.g. Customer, Product, Shops etc.
2. Identify Relationship: Determine the relationship between
entities and to determine the cardinality of each relationship.
E.g. relation between customer and orders.
3. Identify Attributes: The data elements for each entity. E.g.
product can have various attributes such as product name,
manufacturer, price, manufacture date, expiry date etc.
4. Draw Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD): ERD gives a
graphical overview of the database.
5. Assign Keys: Primary key (PK) is one or more data attributes
that uniquely identifies an entity. Foreign Key (FK) is an entity
is the reference to the primary key of another entity. A key that
consists of two or more attributes is called composite key.
6. Define the Attribute’s data type: Attributes data type can be
CHAR, INTEGER etc.
7. Normalization: It makes data more flexible, reliable, reduce
data redundancy and remove data inconsistency. Normalization
can be First Normal Form (1NF), Second Normal Form (2NF),
Third Normal Form (3NF), Fourth Normal Form (4NF), Fifth
Normal Form (5NF), Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF).
4.4 Database Security
Database security refers to the collective measure to protect and
secure a database or database management software from
illegitimate use and malicious threats and attacks. Database
security covers and enforces security on all aspects and
components which includes: data stored in database, database
server and database management system(DBMS). Some of the
ways database security is analyzed and implemented includes:
1. Restricting unauthorized access by implementing strong and
multifactor access and data management controls.
2. Load / Stress testing and capacity testing of a database to
ensure it doesn’t crash in user overload or DDOS.
3. Physical security of the database server from theft and
natural disasters.
4. Reviewing existing system for any known or unknown
vulnerabilities and defining and implementing a road map or
plan to mitigate them.
4.5 SQL
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is a database
language designed for the retrieval and management of data
stored in relational database management system (RDBMS).
It is non-procedural query language. SQL is originally
designed as a declarative query and data manipulation
language. The SQL language has several parts such as:
a. Data Definition Language: Data Definition Language (DDL)
is used to define data structures. It is used to define and alter the
structure of database items. It also can be referred to as data
description language since it defines the columns and records in
a database table.
b. Data Manipulation Language: A data manipulation
language (DML) is a computer programming language used
for adding (inserting), deleting, and modifying (updating)
data in a database.
c. Embedded SQL: Embedded SQL defines how SQL
statements can be embedded within general purpose propose
programming language such as C, C++, PHP etc.
d. Dynamic SQL: Dynamic SQL allows to construct queries
at run time.
e. Transaction Control: SQL commands for specifying the
beginning and ending of transaction.
f. Client-server Execution and Remote Database Access: These
commands control how a client application program can
connect to a SQL database server or access data from a
database over a network.
Basic structure of SQL Query
The SQL SELECT statement queries data from tables in
database. The statement begins with SELECT keyword. The
basic SELECT statement has three clause: SELECT, FROM and
WHERE. The SELECT clause specifies the table columns that
are retrieved. The FROM clause specifies the table accessed
and WHERE clause specifies which table rows are retrieved.
Sid Sname Level Age Sex
1. Ram Undergraduate 22 Male
2. Shyam Graduate 25 Male
3. Rita Undergraduate 21 Female
4. Gopal Graduate 26 Male

Table : Student
E.g. 1. SELECT Sname FROM Student WHERE Sex =
‘FEMALE’
Sname
Rita

E.g. 2. SELECT Sid, Sname, Sex FROM Student

Sid Sname Sex
1. Ram Male
2. Shyam Male
3. Rita Female
4. Gopal Male
E.g. 3. SELECT * from Student
Sid Sname Level Age Sex
1. Ram Undergraduate 22 Male
2. Shyam Graduate 25 Male
3. Rita Undergraduate 21 Female
4. Gopal Graduate 26 Male

E.g. 4. SELECT Sid, Sname, Level, Age FROM Student where

Age >21
Sid Sname Level Age
1. Ram Undergraduate 22
2. Shyam Graduate 25
3. Gopal Graduate 26
E.g. 5. ALTER TABLE Student ADD (Address Varchar (15));
Sid Sname Level Age Sex Address
1. Ram Undergraduate 22 Male
2. Shyam Graduate 25 Male
3. Rita Undergraduate 21 Female
4. Gopal Graduate 26 Male

E.g. 6. Drop table Student

Removes table student from database.
4.6 Data Warehouse
 A data warehouse is a central repository of information that can be
analyzed to make more informed decisions. Data warehousing
involves data cleansing, data integration and data consolidations.
a. Integrated Data: the data is collected from various sources, such as
transactional systems, and then cleaned, transformed, and
consolidated into a single, unified view. This allows for easy access
and analysis of the data, as well as the ability to track data over time.
b. Subject-Oriented: data is organized around specific subjects, such
as customers, products, or sales. This allows for easy access to the
data relevant to a specific subject, as well as the ability to track the
data over time..
 Non-Volatile
This means that the data in the warehouse is never updated or
deleted, only added to.
 Time-Variant
data is stored with a time dimension. This allows for easy access
to data for specific time periods, such as last quarter or last year.
This makes it possible to track trends and patterns over time.
Application of Data Warehouse
a. Banking Industry: They use data warehouse to analyze
consumer data, market trend and financial decision making.
b. Consumer Goods Industry: They use data warehouse for
prediction of customer trends, inventory management, market
and advertisement research.
c. Government: They use data warehouse to maintain and
analyze tax records, health policy records, criminal record etc.
d. Education: Universities use data warehouse to understand
student’s demographics, human resource management, proposal
of research grants.
e. Healthcare: Financial, clinical and employee records are fed
to warehouse as it strategize and predict outcomes, track and
analyze their service feedback, generate patient reports, share data
with tie-in insurance company, medical aid services etc.
f. Hospitality Industry: The utilize warehouse services to design
and evaluate their advertising and promotion campaigns where
they target customers based on their feedback and travel patterns.
g. Insurance: To analyze data patterns and customers trends.
h. Manufacturing, Distribution and Retailers: They use data
warehouse to track items, analyze sales, predict market demands,
current business trend and ultimately make better decisions.
Telecom Industry: They use data warehouse to analyze fixed
assets, analysis of customer calling patterns for sales
representative to push advertisement campaigns, tracking customer
queries etc.
4.7 Data Mining
Data mining is defined as extracting information from a huge
sets of data. The information or knowledge extracted so can be
used for number of applications such as market analysis,
customer retention, production control etc.
Application of Data Mining
a. Financial Data Analysis: Banks and Financial institutions use
data mining for loan payment prediction and customer credit
policy analysis, classification and clustering of customers for
targeted marketing, detection of money laundering and other
financial crimes.
b. Retail Industry: Data mining in retail industry helps
identifying customer buying patterns and trends that leads to
improved quality of customer service and good customer
retention and satisfaction.
c. Telecom Industry: Data mining in telecommunication
industry helps in identifying the telecommunication pattern,
catch fraudulent activities, make better use of resources and
improve quality of service.
d. Biological Data Analysis: Biological data mining is a very
important part of bioinformatics. It can be used in indexing,
similarity search and comparative analysis multiple nucleotide
sequence, discovery of structural patterns and analysis of
genetic network and protein pathways etc.
 e. Other scientific application: A large amount of data set is
being generated because of the fast numerical simulations in
various fields such as climate and ecosystem modeling,
chemical engineering, fluid dynamics etc.
f. Intrusion Detection: Intrusion refers to any kind of action that
threatens integrity, confidentiality and availability of network
resources.
4.8 Database Administrator
Database Administrator is a person who has central control over
both data and application program. The job of DBA vary
depending upon the job description and corporate and
organization policies. Some of the responsibilities of DBA are
as follows:
a. Schema Definition and Modification: It is the responsibility
of DBA to create the database schemas by executing a set of
data definition statements in DDL.
b. Security Enforcement and Administration: DBA is
responsible for establishing and monitoring the security of
database system.
c. Performance Tuning: DBA is responsible for analyzing the
data stored in database and studying it performance and
efficiency.
d. Database Design: DBA works with the development team
during the database design stage due to which many problems
can be avoided in later phase.
e. Physical Organization Modification: DBA is responsible for
carrying out the modification in the physical organization of
database for better performance.
e. Data Backup and Maintenance: DBA is responsible for
taking the database backup parodically in order to recover from
any hardware or software failure. Other routine maintenance
checks that are carried out by the DBA are checking data
storage and ensuring the availability of free disk space for
normal operation, upgrading disk space as when required.