Solar Energy

SOLAR RADIATION
Sun as a source of energy
Sun is the ultimate source of energy for the earth. The sun is the source of life on our planet
earth and directly (or) indirectly is the fuel for most renewable systems.

The radiant energy emitted by the sun is called solar energy. Energy that the earth receives
from the sun in the form of heat and light.

Deep in the core of the sun, hydrogen atoms react by thermonuclear fusion, then they produce
large amount of energy.

This energy travels 93 million miles and reaches the earth in 8 minutes. The different forms of
energy on the earth can be originates from the sun.
The solar energy can be converted into different forms of energies as follows:
 Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy (food) by the process of
photosynthesis. Animals including human needs plants for food and oxygen they produce.
Vitamin-D is produced in human bodies by absorbing sun rays.

 Heat energy from the sun causes changing weather pastures, that produces wind and wind
turbines then convert wind power into electric energy.

 The heat energy from the sun can be converted into electric energy in hydroelectricity
process.

 The fossil fuels such as coal , oil , natural gas can be created from fossilized living matter
(animals and plants) through the photosynthesis process.

 Sun light can be used to produce electricity from solar photovoltaic cells. So, sun is one of
the most sources of energy.
Solar Radiation:
 Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion that converts
electromagnetic energy.

 It is also known as short wave radiation. Solar radiation comes in many forms such as visible
light, radio waves, heat(infrared), x-rays and ultraviolet rays.

 The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about
5800 K.

 Above half of the radiation is in the visible shortwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

 The other half is mostly in the near infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the
system.

 The units to measure solar radiation is watt/m 2. The different form of solar radiation is
represented in below table:
 Solar Radiation Description Wavelength Nature
Short Wave UV C 100 – 280 nm Emitted from the sun totally absorbed
Radiation by the earth’s atmosphere before
reaching the ground.
UV B 280 – 315 nm Emitted from the sun, most reaches the
ground but not biologically very
active.
UV A 315 – 380 nm Emitted from the sun, most reaches the
ground but not biologically very active
Visible 380 – 750 nm Visible light in the form of VIBGYOR
colours.
Long Wave NIR 750 – 1500 nm Heat radiation from the sun.
Radiation (Near
Infrared)
FIR 1500 – 1000000 Heat radiation from the atmosphere ,
(Far Infrared) clouds, earth and surroundings
 Solar radiation = Thermal radiation + electromagnetic radiation.

 Solar radiation that can’t be absorbed (or) catered and reaches the ground directly from
sun is called direct radiation (or) beam radiation.

 Solar radiation received from the sun after its direction is changed by reflection and
scattering by atmosphere is called diffuse radiation.

 The sum of direct and diffuse radiation is called total (or) global solar radiation.

 One of the main cause of climate changes due to solar radiation.

Solar radiation at the earth Surface:

 Solar radiation that perpetrates the atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in both
amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere.

 In the first place, the part of radiation is reflected back into the space especially by clouds.

 Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the
air.

 Oxygen and ozone absorb UV radiation and water vapour, CO2 absorb some amount of
energy in the infrared range.
 In addition, the part of solar radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by gas
molecules and dust particles.

 X-rays and other shortwave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric components in the

ionosphere.

 Solar radiation that can’t be absorbed (or) scattered and reaches the ground directly
from sun is called direct radiation and it produces shadow.

 Solar radiation received from the sun after its direction is changed by reflection and
scattering by atmosphere is called diffuse radiation.

 The sum of direct and diffuse radiation gives the total solar radiation received at any
point on the earth surface
The solar energy can be reaches the earth by the following processes.

1. Reflection: 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space.

2. Absorption : 19% of solar radiation is absorbed by atmosphere.

3. Absorption by the earth surface: 51% of the solar energy at the top of the atmosphere
reaches earth surface and it heats land and oceans.

4. Sky is blue due to light scattering.

Main effects of Solar radiation at earth Surface:
 Atmosphere effects including absorption and scattering.
 Local variations in the atmosphere such as water vapour, clouds and pollution.
 Latitude of the location.
 The season of the year at the time of the day.
 Measurement of Solar radiation

1. Pyrheliometer: It is used to measure the direct beam of solar radiation at the regular
occurrence.

2. Pyranometer: It is used to measure global radiation and diffuse radiation.

3. Sunshine recorder: It is used to record the amount of sunshine at a given location at

any time.
 PYROHELIOMETER

 It is used to measure the direct beam of solar radiation at the regular occurrence.
 This instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun continuously.
 The instruments used for measuring solar constant are called as Pyrheliometers.
 The external structure of a pyrheliometer looks like a telescope because it is a lengthy tube.
 By using this tube, we can spot the lens towards the sun to calculate the radiance.
 The bottom of pyrheliometer has a black surface.
 The solar radiation enters into this device through a quartz window and directly reaches the
thermopile.
 So, this heat energy can be converted into electric signal that can be recorded.
 Construction:
 It consists of a two thin exactly similar
blackened metal strips (made of platinum or
constantan) having the same surface area ‘A’.

 The two strips are arranged such that that one is

open to receive radiation from sun and other is
protected by a double walled shield M.

 The backs of strips “S1 “and “ S2 “are connected

to a two junctions of thermocouple consisting of
copper and constant wire through galvanometer
‘G’.

 The strip’ S2 ‘is heated electrically with the help

of an electric circuit.
 Working:
 When the two strips “S1” and “ S2” are at the same
temperature, then galvanometer ‘G’ shows no
deflection.

 When strip “S1” is exposed to the radiation from the

sun, then strip “S1” temperature is increased and
galvanometer shows deflection.

 When the current is supplied throughout the strip ‘S2’,

then it is adjusted and galvanometer shows no Circuit diagram of a pyrheliometer
deflection and again both strips are at same
temperature.
 Let Q is the amount of heat radiation over the unit per area per unit time on strip ‘S2’, α is
its absorption co-efficient ,then amount of heat radiation absorbed through strip S 1 is QAα .

 The heat generated in strip S2 per unit time is VI.

 Now heat absorbed = heat generated.

 By putting the values of V, I, A and α we can measure direct beam of solar radiation or heat
radiation.
 By using pyrheliometer we can measure the solar constant by using the following formula
 Applications: The applications of this instrument includes

1. Observation of climate

2. Estimation of solar collector efficiency

3. Photovoltaic devices

4. Weather monitoring and climatologically research

 PYRANOMETER
 Pyranometer is a device that measures both beam radiation and diffuse radiation.
 It measures global radiation over a hemispherical field of view.
 The working principle of pyranometer is based on thermoelectric detection.
 Pyranometer word come from Greek word, pyr means fire and ano means above in the sky.
 Construction: It consists of following components

1. Thermopile: It is a series combination of several thermocouples is used to measure the

temperature difference between two surfaces.

2. Glass dome: It protects the thermopile from rain, wind and it limits the response of
spectral from 300 nm to 2000 nm from 180degrees of view.
 The construction of second dome gives extra radiation protection.

3. Sensing element: A black body is acts as a sensing element in pyranometer and it absorbs
all radiation.

4. Voltmeter: A voltmeter is connected to a thermocouple to measure potential difference.

Shaded ring: Shaded ring will help in the prevention of the direct radiation. If we want to
measure only diffused radiation
 Working:
 Here, the radiation from the sun passes through the
glass dome and falls onto the black body situated at
the centre of the instruments.

 Now the temperature of blackbody starts raising.

The rise in temperature of the absorbing surface is
detected by thermopile.

 Now the thermopile generates thermo emf

proportional to the radiation absorbed according to
Seebeck effect.

 This thermo emf is calibrated in terms of received radiation in the units of watt/m 2.
 This radiation value is none than global solar radiation(Ig). After that, by using shading
ring only diffused radiation is allowed to fall on the black body, this the thermopile reads
diffused solar radiation (Id).

 Now the beam radiation is calculated as I b=Ig-Id. Hence , we can calculate both diffuse and
beam radiations using pyranometer.

Types: Pyranometers are classified into two types

1. Thermopile Pyranometers

2. Photodiode based pyranometers

 Applications:

 The solar intensity data can be recorded.

 These are used in climatological and meteorological studies.

 PV system design and location of the green houses can be established.

Disadvantages: It’s spectral sensitivity is imperfect. So, it does not observe the complete
spectrum of the sun. Hence errors in measurements can occur.
 SUNSHINE RECORDER
 Sunshine recorder was invented by Campbell in 1853 and later modified by stokes in 1879.
 A sunshine recorder is a meteorological device that records the amount of sunshine
duration at a given location. Sometimes this device is called “heliograph”.

Construction:
 It consists of a glass sphere of 10 cm diameter mounted concentrically in a section of a
spherical bowl.

 This instrument is installed on a masonry pillar of 10 fts. above the ground.

 The sunlight is focused onto a paper called solar card.

 It consists of three overlapping pair of grooves are placed in the bowl to take cards for
different seasons of the year
Working:
 Short curve cards are placed in a upper groove in 15th October to end of February.

 Long curve cards are placed in a lower groove in summer season from 12th April to 2nd
September.

 Straight curve cards are placed in a middle groove during equinoxes from 3rd September to
14th October and 1st March to 11th April.

 The action of the recorder depends upon the burning of the card due to heat of the sun.

 The cards burn linearly because some chemical treatment is given to the cards.

 The total length of the burn is measured with the help of a time scale to obtain the duration
of sunshine.
 Units of bright sunshine: Hours
 Least count : 0.1 hrs (or) 6 min
Types: There are two basic types of sunshine recorders

1. One type uses the sun itself as a time scale for the sunshine readings.
2. The other type uses some form of clock for the time scale.
Applications: The information collected from sunshine recorder is useful in
 Meteorology: Sunshine recorders can help meteorologists predict weather patterns and
provide accurate forecasts

 Solar energy: Sunshine recorders can help determine the best locations for solar power
installations, based on the amount of sunlight that falls in a given area. Agriculture:

 Farmers can use sunshine recorders to determine the best times for planting and
harvesting crops.

 Tourism: Sunshine recorders can help travellers plan their trips, since they provide
information on the amount of sunlight expected at a given location.
 Solar Collectors
A solar collector is a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat. Solar collectors can be used
for a variety of purposes, including generating electricity and heating water
Classification of collectors
Important features of collectors
Collector efficiency: Solar collector efficiency is the ratio of the heat energy produced by a
solar collector to the total solar energy it receives

Concentrating ratio: The concentration ratio of a solar collector is the ratio of the aperture
area to the absorber area. It measures the system's ability to concentrate solar energy.

Temperature range: The temperature range of a solar collector depends on the type of
collector and its intended use:

Low temperature collectors

These collectors produce temperatures of up to 100°C and are used for air heaters and solar
domestic hot water (SDHW) systems. Flat plate collectors and evacuated tube collectors are
examples of low temperature collectors.
Medium temperature collectors
These collectors produce temperatures of 100°C to 300°C and are used for air heating in
hospitals, offices, and the food industry.

Evacuated tube collectors, compound parabolic collectors (CPC), and parabolic through
collectors are examples of medium temperature collectors.

High temperature collectors

These collectors produce temperatures of 250°C to 1000°C and include parabolic through
collectors, parabolic dish collectors, central receivers collectors, and heliostat field collector
(HFC).
 Flat Plate Collector

Liquid Heating Solar Collectors

Air Heating Solar Collectors

Flat plate collectors are used when the temperature requirements are below 90 0C and used for
space heating and service water heating. These collectors can absorb both direct as well as
diffuse radiation.

These are made in rectangular panels of area 1.7 to 2.9 square meters.

Flat plate collectors are two types, liquid heating collectors and solar air heaters.

Flat plate collectors are having five main components

 A transparent cover consists of one or more sheets of glass
 Tubes, fins, passages or channels to carry the water, air or other fluids
 The absorber plate usually metallic with black surface
 Insulation to prevent the loss of heat
 The casing or container which encloses all other components
The absorber plate is made of copper or steel or aluminium with 1 mm or 2 mm thickness.

While the tubes are made of copper with the diameters 1 to 1.5 cm.

Both the plate and tubes are kept in thermal contact with each other.

Bottom of the tubes is provided with insulation of 5 to 10 cm thickness.

1 or 2 glass covers of thickness 3 or 4 mm are provided on the top of the collector with a
spacing of 1.5 to 3 cm.

Both direct as well as diffuse radiation falls on the glass cover which is at the top of the
collector.

As it is short wave radiation the entire radiation falls on the glass cover enters into the
collector.

Then it is absorbed by the absorber plate at the bottom of the collector.

Then the heat absorbed by the absorber plate is transferred to either the liquid flows inside the
tubing or to the air moving in the channel below the absorber plate.

The insulation provided at the bottom part of the collector prevents the loss of heat due to
conduction as well as convection.

The glass plate at the top of the collector prevents the escape of the radiation from the
collector.

Provision of two glass at the top of the collector prevents the loss of heat due to convection.

Advantages of flat plate collectors

 Flat plate collectors are generally cheaper to buy and install than other types of solar
thermal collectors.

 They require little maintenance and don't need moving parts, pumps, or tracking systems.
 They can be used in a variety of climates and applications, and can be mounted on roofs,
walls, or the ground.

 They are more resistant to mechanical damage and hail than other types of solar thermal
collectors.

 They can collect both beam and diffuse radiation.

 They are easy to manufacture, install, and maintain, which can create local jobs.

Disadvantages of flat plate collectors

 They are often limited to low temperature applications like household water heating.
 They may have higher maintenance and replacement costs in the long term.
 They may require more roof space and orientation.
 It could take 10 years to see a return on your investment.
Concentric Collectors

 Focussing collectors

 Cylindrical parabolic collector or parabolic trough collector

 Fixed mirror strip reflector

 Fresnel Lense collector

 Non-Focussing Collectors

 Modified flat plate collector

 Compound parabolic concentrating collector

 Cylindrical Parabolic Collector

It consists of a reflector unit of length

3 to 5 m and the width of 1.5 to 2.4 m.

Ten or more such units are connected

end to end in a row.

Several rows may be connected in

parallel.

Reflector is in parabolic cross section and the solar radiation focussed along a line.
Absorber is placed along the axis
The collector's curved mirrors concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver tube located in the
focal point of the parabola.

For maximum efficiency, the collector needs to track the sun's movement along a single
axis.

The concentrated sunlight heats the fluid in the receiver tube, which then transfers the heat to
a heat exchanger.

The heat exchanger converts the fluid into steam, which is used to run a turbine that
generates electricity.
Features of cylindrical parabolic collectors are
 Temperature: CPCs can produce temperatures up to 400°C.

 Efficiency: The efficiency of a CPC is estimated to be around 15%.

Advantages

 High efficiency: Parabolic trough collectors are highly efficient.

 Low cost: Parabolic troughs are one of the cheapest ways to generate power from the
sun.

 Reliable: Parabolic trough collectors are reliable and have a long lifespan.

 Weather resistant: Parabolic trough collectors are less susceptible to weather damage
than other solar collectors.

 Compatible with existing infrastructure: Parabolic trough collectors can be

compatible with existing infrastructure.
Disadvantages

 Large land area: Parabolic trough collectors require a large amount of land.

 Maintenance costs: Parabolic trough collectors can be expensive to maintain.

 Sun tracking: Parabolic trough collectors require sun tracking to maintain solar
collecting.

 High concentration of sunlight: Parabolic trough collectors require a high concentration

of sunlight to function properly.

 Molten salts: Molten salts in parabolic trough collectors can freeze at high
temperatures, which could disrupt the factory's functioning.
Fixed mirror strip reflector

Fixed-mirror solar concentrator (FMSC) is a

solar collector that uses a series of long, narrow,
flat mirrors to concentrate solar energy onto an
absorber tube.

The mirrors are built in a fixed position and

supported on the ground, which can reduce the
cost of the collector.

The mirror strips are fixed along a cylindrical

surface and produce a narrow image that
follows the sun's circular path.
The receiver is moved along the same circular path as the mirror strips to track the sun.

The mirrors reflect solar radiation onto the receiver, which is a small absorber.

The mirrors enhance the concentration effect by reflecting and redirecting scattered radiation
onto the absorber.

The concentration ratio of a designed mirror-striped based collector (MCPC) can be 4.

The acceptance angle of an MCPC can be 10° (The maximum angle at which the solar
concentrator can capture incoming sunlight)

The solar-to-thermal efficiency of an experimental MCPC prototype can be 35.7%.

Features of a fixed-mirror solar concentrator:
 The mirrors are built in a fixed position, which can reduce the cost of the collector.

 The mirrors are arranged in a series along a cylindrical trough.

 The absorber tube is moved to stay in the focal line, which is a sharp focus regardless of
the sun's direction.

 The mirrors can be designed to have less than 10% of the total energy lost over a year's
time.
Advantages
 Concentrating collectors can reach higher temperatures than other types of collectors.
 Concentrating collectors are more efficient than other types of collectors.
 Concentrating collectors require less material than flat plate collectors.
 Concentrating collectors have a smaller absorber area than flat plate collectors.
 Concentrating collectors require little or no antifreeze to protect the absorber.

Disadvantages
 Concentrating collectors are expensive.

 Concentrating collectors may aggravate water shortages.

 Concentrating collectors perform poorly on cloudy days.

 Fresnel Lense Collector

Fresnel Lense Collector Receiver Tube

A Fresnel lens collector is the refraction type collector.

It utilizes the focussing effect of a Fresnel lens to concentrate sunlight onto a surface or
photovoltaic cell.

For a trough type the lens is a rectangle in shape with 4.7 m in overall length and0.95 m in
width.

It is made in sections from cost acrylic plastic. The rounded triangular trough serves only as a
container and plays no role in concentrating the solar energy.

For full effectiveness the Fresnel lens must be continuously aligned with the sun in two
directions namely along and perpendicular to its length.

It can be achieved by orienting the troughs in the north-south direction.

The total solar radiation energy that can be collected annually is about 30% greater than for an
east-west orientation.

Receiver tube is having the same characteristics of flat plate collector.

Absorber surface is generally made of black chrome.

The absorber pipe is generally enclosed in a glass jacket in order to reduce the thermal losses
due to convection and radiation.

The space between the pipe and the jacket is evacuated to reduce the convective losses.

The diameter of the glass jacket may be about 5 cm and that of the absorber pipe is about 3
cm.
The optical acceptance angle of a Fresnel lens collector is typically around 5°.

The optical efficiency of a Fresnel lens collector is usually around 80–85%.

The minimum thickness of a Fresnel lens is 2 mm and the maximum is 7 mm.

Fresnel lenses can be made of polymethyl.

The light strip on the focal plane of a Fresnel lens collector can be around 26.7 mm wide.
Advantages of Fresnel lens collectors:
 Fresnel lens collectors have the highest solar-to-electric conversion efficiency.

 Fresnel lens collectors are lightweight.

 Fresnel lens collectors have a higher thermal peak power per ground area compared to
parabolic trough plants.

 Fresnel lens collectors have a low wind load, which leads to slimmer and more
lightweight mechanical structures.

 Fresnel lenses can produce heat and electricity for greenhouse energy needs.

 Fresnel lenses can control light.

Disadvantages of Fresnel lens collectors:

 Fresnel lens collectors have lower optical performance.

 Fresnel lens collectors need higher tracking accuracy.

 Fresnel lens collectors have a lower yearly energy production per installed capacity.
Modified Flat Plate Collector
A modified flat plate collector is a solar panel that uses solar energy to generate thermal
energy

Components
A flat plate collector includes:
Absorber plate: A dark-colored, heat-absorbing material that maximizes solar energy
absorption
Transparent cover: Reduces heat loss from the absorber plate
Heat-transport fluid: A fluid, like water or antifreeze, that carries heat from the absorber plate
Insulation: Reduces heat loss from the collector
Protective casing: Keeps the components free from dust and moisture
Reflectors: To reflect the diffuse radiation onto the absorber
How it works
A flat plate collector absorbs solar radiation with a dark-coated metal plate.

The plate is attached to pipes that carry a fluid, like water or antifreeze, which transfers the
heat to a storage tank or heat exchanger.
Advantages
 Simple in construction
 Inexpensive
 Easy to install and maintain
 Can operate effectively in a range of temperatures.
Compound Parabolic Concentric Collectors
A compound parabolic collector (CPC) is the solar thermal collector that can concentrate and
reflect all incident radiation onto a receiver by using two parabolic reflectors to concentrate
solar energy onto a tube receiver.

Two parabolic reflectors with different focal lengths are combined to create a reflector
geometry. The focus of each parabola is at the lower edge of the other parabola.

CPCs collect solar radiation entering the collector aperture within an acceptance angle (10–
80 degrees) onto the tube receiver.
Specifications

Open width – 150 mm Closed width – 65 mm Length – 1665 mm

Weight 1.7 – 3 Kg /per concentrator

Reflector area 0.4 m2

Advantages
 Accepts a wide range of angles: CPCs can accept radiation from a wide range of angles.

 Efficient: CPCs use multiple internal reflections to direct radiation to the absorber
surface.
 Renewable: Solar energy is a renewable and clean energy source.

 Reduces carbon footprint: Solar energy reduces carbon footprint.

Disadvantages
 Requires a large installation area: CPCs require a large installation area.

 Dependent on sunlight: CPCs only work during the day and are less effective in rainy or
foggy weather.

 Initial capital expenditure: CPCs require an initial capital expenditure, but have zero
operating expenses.
Applications
 Solar energy systems: CPCs are used in solar PV, thermal, and hybrid PVT collectors.
 Water heating: CPCs can be used for active and passive solar water heating, space heating,
and hot water production.
 Industrial applications: CPCs can be used for industrial air and water systems, steam
generation, and process heat.
 Desalination: CPCs can be used for desalination through multistage flash, multiple effect
boiling, and vapor compression.

 Cooking: CPCs can be used for solar cooking.

 Building-integrated solar systems: CPCs can be used in building-integrated solar systems

(BISS).

 Photovoltaics (PV)/T systems: CPCs can be used in photovoltaics (PV)/T systems.

 Hydrogen production: CPCs can be used for hydrogen production.

 Photo-degradation of wastewater: CPCs can be used for photo-degradation of wastewater.

 Applications of Solar Energy

Solar energy has many applications, including:

 Industrial processes: Solar energy can be used for a variety of industrial applications,
including:
Water desalination

Enhanced oil recovery

Food processing

Chemical production

Mineral processing
 Heating and cooling: Solar energy can be used to heat and cool buildings, including:

Swimming pools

Hotels, resorts, hospitals, and hostels

Solar houses

 Water heating: Solar energy can be used to heat water for domestic and industrial uses:

Solar water heaters

Boiler feed
 Drying: Solar energy can be used to dry agricultural and animal products, such as:

Fruits

Milk

Fish

Potato chips

Maize grains

 Cooking: Solar energy can be used for cooking with solar ovens

 Lighting: Solar energy can be used for outdoor lighting systems

 Distillation: Solar energy can be used to remove salts from water

 Pumping: Solar energy can be used for water pumping

 Solar Water Heating

A solar water heating system uses a collector to absorb solar energy and a storage tank to
store hot water. The system works by

1. Absorbing solar radiation: The sun's rays hit the collector panel, which has a black
absorbing surface that transfers the heat to water flowing through it.

2. Storing hot water: The heated water is collected in an insulated tank to prevent heat loss.

3. Circulating water: A thermo siphon system automatically circulates water from the tank
through the collectors and back to the tank.
A solar water heater works by using the sun's rays to heat water and storing it in an insulated
tank for later use:
Absorbs sunlight: The solar water heater's collector panel absorbs the sun's rays. The
collector contains a heat transfer fluid, like water, that absorbs the solar radiation and heats
up.

Heats water: The heated fluid passes through a heat exchanger in the storage tank,
transferring the heat to the water.

Circulates water: The heated water is collected in the insulated tank, and a thermo siphon
system automatically circulates the water from the tank back through the collectors.

Uses hot water: When a hot water faucet is opened, the heated water flows through the
plumbing system
Solar Drying
Solar dryers use solar radiation to heat air, which then dries the material placed in the dryer:

 Absorb solar radiation: The dryer's surface absorbs solar radiation and transfers it as heat
energy.

 Heat air: The air in the dryer heats up as it passes through the chamber.

 Transfer heat to material: The heated air moves up and dries the material by evaporating
moisture.

 Remove humid air: The humid air is removed from the dryer by an exhaust fan or
chimney
Solar drying systems have many applications, including:

 Food and agriculture: Drying fruits, vegetables, and crops, as well as producing powders
of spices like pepper, turmeric, and chilies

 Medicine: Drying herbs like tulsi, neem, and cashew, as well as marine food, coffee beans,
and tea leaves

 Industrial: Drying chemicals, leather, salt, plywood, and textiles

 Dairy farming and livestock: Providing the right air temperature and quality for animals to
grow and stay healthy

 Wastewater treatment: Treating wastewater

 Clay brick production: Drying clay bricks

 Cement manufacturing: Drying raw materials to produce Portland cement

 Wood and timber: Drying timbers

 Solar Passive Heating

Passive solar heating: Uses the sun's heat and light directly, through the design, placement,
or materials of a structure.

For example, a home with south-facing windows is a passive solar heating system.

Passive systems use natural processes like convection, conduction, and radiation to warm a
building.

They require little to no external energy and can help a home be more energy efficient.
Active solar heating
Uses devices to convert the sun's energy into a more usable form, like electricity or hot
water.

For example, photovoltaic solar panels that power an electric heater are an active solar
heating system.

Active systems use moving components to enhance their effectiveness, but they are
generally more expensive to build and maintain than passive systems.
Features of passive solar heating:
 Thermal mass: Materials like thick walls and floors store heat and slowly release it into the
building.
 South-facing windows: Sunlight enters the building through windows facing south.
 Sunspaces: Glass rooms on the south side of a building can provide up to 60% of a home's
winter heating.
 Trombe walls: Made of absorptive materials, these store heat during the day and release it
at night.
 Roof ponds: Containers of water on the roof store heat and can be covered with insulating
panels at night.
 Insulation: Insulation in the roof, outer walls, and under the floor helps minimize heat loss.
 Natural lighting: Natural lighting reduces the need for electricity during the day.
Passive solar heating can be a cost-effective way to heat a building. Studies have shown
that homes that use gas can save $150–$380 per year, and homes that use oil can save
$210–$520 per year.
 SOLAR POND

 A Solar Pond is solar energy collector generally fairly large in size, and that looks like a
Pond.

 A solar pond is pool of salt water which collects and stores thermal energy.

Working Principle: The solar pond works on a very simple principle it is a well-known that
water or air heated it’s become a lighter and raise upward.

The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond
making it too heavy to raise.
Construction:
 Solar ponds are the order of 1 to 3 meters deep and 60 -100 meters long .They are
constructed on a level ground by combination of excavation and membrane lime.

 A solar pond has 3 zones. The top zone is called surface zone or upper convective zone
(UCZ) which is at atmospheric temperature and has little salt content.

 The bottom zone is very hot (75–80-degree temperature) and is very salty. Its stores the
solar energy in the form of heat, therefore it is known as storage zone (LCZ).In this zone
the salt content increases as depth increases.

 The gradient zone or Normal convective zone (NCZ) act as a temperature insulator allow
sunlight to reach the bottom zone and but also entrapping there.
 The trapped solar energy is then withdrawn from the pond in the form of high
concentration solution of salt (hot brain solution)from the storage zone.

 The pond is filled with water and 400 tons of salt dissolved in it make salt solution.

 The Buij solar pond is for research development project constructed in a 1987 at Kutch
dairy in Gujarat.

Uses:

 There are many specific applications of solar ponds for different purpose such as heating
and cooling of houses, swimming pools, Greenhouse heating etc.

 These are used in salt production aquaculture using fresh water fruits and vegetable
canning industry.
Advantages
 Large thermal mass: Solar ponds can store heat energy well, allowing them to generate
electricity both during the day and at night.

 Cost-effective: Solar ponds are generally more cost-effective than flat-plate solar
water-heating systems.

 Good alternative to fossil fuels: Solar ponds are a good alternative to fossil fuel
technologies in rural areas.
Disadvantages
 Low solar-to-electricity conversion: The relatively low temperatures achieved in solar ponds
make solar-to-electricity conversion inefficient, typically less than 2%.

 Salt accumulation: Salt crystals accumulate in the pond and need to be removed, which can be a
maintenance expense.

 Fresh water required: Non-saline water is constantly required to maintain salinity gradients due to
evaporation.

 Large area of land required: Solar ponds require a large area of land.

 Constant maintenance: Solar ponds require constant maintenance.

 Don't work well at high latitudes: Solar ponds don't work well at high latitudes because the
collection surface is horizontal and can't be tilted to collect more sunlight.
 Solar Pumping
Solar pumping uses the power generated by solar energy in pumping water in irrigation. The
basic solar pump consists of

 Solar collector – Any type of collector

 Heat transport system

 Boiler or heat exchanger

 Heat engine – Rankine engine / Stirling engine / Brayton cycle

 Condenser

 Pump – Reciprocating / rotary / centrifugal pump

An array of solar collectors collects the solar energy and that energy is used to produce hot
water.

The water heated in the solar collectors is used to generate the steam in the heat exchanger
of the Rankine cycle.

The steam generated is supplied to the turbine and the turbine generates the mechanical
work.

The work developed by the turbine is used to run the pump.

Solar pumps use solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity, which powers a motor that
pumps water:
1. Sunlight absorption: Solar panels absorb sunlight and convert it into direct current
(DC) electricity through photovoltaic cells.

2. Powering the motor: The electricity powers a motor that drives the pump. If the pump
motor needs alternating current (AC), an inverter is used.

3. Pumping water: The pump moves water from a source like a well, stream, pond, or
canal.

Solar pumps are useful in places where grid electricity is unavailable or impractical. They
are more economical and have a lower environmental impact than pumps that run on diesel
or grid electricity.
A typical solar water pumping system includes:

 Solar array: Converts sunlight into electricity

 System controller: Controls the array and the pump, and protects against over currents,
over voltages, and short circuits.

 Electric motor: Drives the pump

 Water storage tank: Stores water

Advantages of Solar water pumps

Cost: Solar water pumps can have high upfront costs, but they are cheaper in the long run
because they don't require fuel and have low maintenance costs.

Maintenance: Solar pumps require low maintenance because they have no moving parts in
the solar panels and inverters.

Environmental friendliness: Solar pumps are environmentally friendly as they don't produce
pollution or noise.

Disadvantages of Solar water pumps

Weather dependence: Solar pumps are dependent on weather and sunlight exposure.
Power storage: Solar pumps have limited power storage capacity.

Groundwater exploitation: Solar pumps can lead to excessive exploitation of groundwater

resources because they allow people to use an unlimited amount of water.

Water depth: Solar pumps can't pick up water very high from deep wells. They are
typically used for ponds, shallow wells, storage tanks, or streams.
Solar Thermal Electric Conversion

A solar thermal electric conversion system uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver, which then transfers the heat to a generator to produce electricity:

 Sunlight concentration: Mirrors or reflectors focus the sun's rays onto a receiver.

 Heat transfer: The receiver transfers the heat to a generator, such as a steam turbine.

 Electricity generation: The generator produces electricity.

Solar thermal electric conversion systems can have different efficiencies, depending on the
type of system:

 Solar dish-Stirling engine: A single engine installed at Sandia National Laboratories can
produce up to 25 kW of electricity, with a conversion efficiency of 31.25%.

 Solar parabolic trough plants: These plants have been built with efficiencies of about
20%.
Advantages

 Renewable and sustainable: Solar energy is a renewable and sustainable energy source.

 Low maintenance: Solar energy systems are generally low maintenance.

 Can be used in any climate: Solar energy systems can generate electricity in any
climate, though cloudy days may reduce electricity production.

 Can increase home value: Solar energy systems can increase the value of your home.

 Can keep lights on during grid outages: Solar energy systems can keep the lights on
during grid outages.
Disadvantages
 Weather dependent: Solar energy production is dependent on weather
conditions. Cloudy days can reduce electricity production.

 Cost: Solar energy systems can have high upfront installation and maintenance costs.

 Space: Solar energy systems can use a lot of space.

 Storage: Solar energy storage can be expensive.

Solar Central Tower Receiver System
A solar central receiver (SCR) system, also known as a solar tower or power tower, is a type
of concentrating solar power (CSP) technology.

It uses mirrors to focus sunlight onto a central receiver. The concentrated sunlight is then used
to generate electricity or for chemical processing.

Key components of a solar central receiver system:

Heliostats: Thousands of two-axis tracking mirrors that reflect sunlight onto the receiver

Receiver: A heat exchanger located at the top of a tower that absorbs the solar energy

Heat transfer fluid: A working fluid, such as steam, air, molten salts, or particles, that
absorbs the solar energy
SCR systems are large-scale plants that can reach much higher levels of concentration than
linear concentrating systems.

The central position of the receiver allows for all energy to be collected in one location, which
saves on transport networks.

SCR systems are considered a promising technology for converting solar radiation into high-
temperature thermal energy.

However, there is evidence that large solar concentrating installations can burn birds that fly
over them.
Some other features of CRS systems include:
 Operational temperature range: CRS systems with at least 100 heliostats can
withstand temperatures ranging from 150–2000 °C

 Heat transfer fluids: Some examples of heat transfer fluids include molten salts, liquid
sodium, water/steam, and air

 Storage: The generated thermal energy can be stored in a molten salt storage

Advantages:

 High temperatures: Can reach maximum temperatures of 2000°C

 Energy storage: Can store energy using heat transfer mediums like molten salt
 High concentration ratios: Can have higher concentration ratios than line-focus
technologies

 Eco-friendly: A green source of energy generation

 Collects all energy at one location: Saves on transport networks

Disadvantages:

 High capital costs: Can have higher capital and maintenance costs than other power
stations

 Requires large spaces: Requires large areas for installation

 Needs a lot of water: Needs a constant water supply to generate steam

 Environmental impacts: Can impact the environment

 Harmful byproducts: Components of the solar tower, such as heliostats, can produce
harmful byproducts during manufacturing

 Limited light collection: May have limited light collection

Solar Photovoltaic System
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels use cells containing a semi-conductor material to capture the
sun’s energy and convert solar radiation into electricity.

The most commonly used semi-conductor material is silicon, which is an abundant natural
resource found in sand.

When light strikes the cell a certain amount of energy is absorbed within the semiconductor
material.

Most PV cells have two layers of semi-conductor material, one positively charged and one
negatively charged.

When light shines on the semi-conductor the electric field across the junction between these
two layers causes electricity to flow, generating direct current (DC).
By placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off
for external use.

Solar PV electric panels do not require bright sunlight in order to operate, meaning that one
can generate electricity on cloudy days also.

However, in general the greater the intensity of light the higher the flow of electricity.

Although, due to the reflection of sunlight, days with slight cloud can result in higher energy
yields than days with a completely cloudless sky.

Direct Current (DC) needs to be converted into alternating current (AC) so it can be used in a
domestic building; this is performed by an inverter.
The AC electricity then passes via the generation meter, which measures how much electricity
has been generated.

PV systems can be used for a wide range of applications, from small residential systems to
utility-scale power generation.

The size of a PV system is measured in kilowatts (kW), and the amount of energy generated
over time is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh).

The efficiency of a PV cell depends on the type of semiconductor material and the technology
used.

For example, monocrystalline solar panels are the purest form of silicon and are more
expensive than polycrystalline or amorphous silicon panels.
Advantages of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

Clean energy: Solar PV cells generate clean, green energy without harmful gases or noise.

Reduced electricity bills: Solar PV systems can help you reduce your electricity bills.

Energy independence: Solar PV systems can help you become more energy independent,

Low maintenance: Solar PV cells are known for having low maintenance and operating costs.

Easy to install: Solar panels can be installed on rooftops or on the ground without interfering
with your lifestyle.

Versatile: Solar PV cells can generate electricity anywhere.

Part of smart energy networks: Solar PV plays an important role in smart energy networks,
which work on distributed power generation.
Disadvantages

 They don't charge at night.

 They require an inverter to convert DC electricity to AC electricity.

 They require an open area to install.

 They require minimal maintenance, but if this is overlooked, they can be damaged after
a few years.
Solar Energy Storage Systems

Need for Storage

Run off the grid: Solar energy storage systems can allow homes and businesses to
run independently from the power grid.

Reduce electricity bills: In areas with time-of-use rates, solar energy storage can help
reduce electricity bills by using stored energy when rates are high.

Provide power during outages: Solar energy storage systems can provide power
during blackouts.
Some types of solar energy storage systems are
Batteries
Solar batteries can store electricity generated by solar panels. The average solar battery can
store around 10 kWh, but some can store up to 13.5 kWh.
Pumped hydro storage
This system uses water to store and release energy. When there is excess solar energy, water is
pumped into a reservoir, and when demand is high, the water is released to turn a turbine and
generate electricity.
Thermal energy storage
This system uses a medium like water or molten salt to absorb heat from the sun. The heated
medium is stored until it's needed to generate electricity or provide heating.
Compressed air energy storage
This system uses excess solar energy to compress air, which is then stored and released to
generate electricity.
Batteries
Here are some types of batteries used to store solar energy:
Lithium-ion: These batteries are a popular choice for solar installations because they are efficient,
have a high energy density, and are scalable. They can store a lot of power in a small space, making
them ideal for powering homes.

Lead-acid: These batteries use a chemical reaction between lead plates and sulfuric acid to store and
release energy. They are one of the rechargeable. Their efficiency is only moderate, usually between
70% and 90%.

Flow batteries: These batteries can store large amounts of energy and are less sensitive to temperature
changes. They have a long lifespan, and their energy capacity can be increased by using larger
electrolyte storage tanks. However, they are more expensive and complex to install and maintain.

Nickel-cadmium: These batteries are often used in industrial applications because they are
robust. They have been used for utility energy storage, but they are relatively expensive.
Advantages
Energy independence: Homeowners can access their own stored solar electricity, reducing
their reliance on the grid and non-renewable energy sources.

Backup power: Solar batteries can provide power during outages and when the sun isn't
shining.

Reduced carbon footprint: Solar energy is a renewable resource that doesn't run out, and
using solar panels and battery storage can help reduce your carbon footprint.

Improved grid stability: Battery storage systems help maintain a stable and reliable grid as
renewable energy sources become more common.

Reduced electricity bills: Solar power can help lower electricity bills, and some users may be
eligible for financial benefits through net metering.
Disadvantages

Cost: Solar storage can be expensive.

Capacity limitations: Solar storage systems have capacity limitations.

Environmental impacts: Solar energy does have some environmental challenges, but these
can be mitigated with smart siting and responsible manufacturing practices.

Weather dependence: Solar energy systems are weather dependent, so their output is
reduced on cloudy days.

Power outages: If connected to the electric grid, solar energy systems are affected by power
outages.
Pumped hydro storage systems

Pumped hydro storage (PHS) is a clean energy storage technology that can be used to store
excess solar energy:
Advantages

Renewable and sustainable: Pumped storage systems are a renewable energy source.

Low operating costs: Pumped storage systems have low operating costs and long service
lives.

Efficient: Pumped storage systems are considered a very efficient way to generate and store
energy.

Controllable: Pumped storage systems can respond to load changes within seconds.

Recreational opportunities: Pumped storage systems can provide recreational opportunities.

Water supply and flood control: Pumped storage systems can help with water supply and
flood control.
Disadvantages

High cost: Pumped storage systems can be expensive relative to other technologies.

Energy losses: There are energy losses in a pumped storage system, with about 20% of
electricity lost in a complete pumping/generation cycle.

Environmental concerns: Dams can alter ecosystems, and construction can cause flooding
and require diverting rivers. During droughts, water from the reservoirs may be needed
elsewhere.
Thermal energy storage
Two-tank direct storage: In this system, the same fluid is used to collect and store the solar
energy. The fluid is stored in two tanks, one at a high temperature and one at a low
temperature. The fluid is moved between the tanks to heat and cool it.

Two-tank indirect storage: This system is similar to the two-tank direct storage system, but
uses different fluids for heat transfer and storage.

Latent heat storage: This method uses a phase-change material (PCM) to store heat. The
PCM absorbs heat energy and changes from a solid to a liquid.

Molten salt: In this method, a molten salt mix is heated by sunlight reflected onto a receiver
atop a tower. The heated salt is then stored in a hot tank for later use.

Sand: Sand grains can be used to store heat from concentrated solar rays. The sand can be
collected in an insulated storage tank after falling from the top of the solar receiver tower.
Advantages
Cost: TES systems can be relatively inexpensive.

Discharge duration: TES systems can achieve long discharge durations, sometimes lasting
hours or days.

Lifetime: TES systems have a relatively long lifetime.

Renewable energy: TES systems can be used in renewable energy generation.

Improved power output: TES systems can improve the dispatch-ability of power output from
concentrated solar power plants.
Disadvantages

Temperature limits: The temperature limits for TES materials may not align with the
application.

Integration: TES systems may be more difficult to integrate with existing plants.

Passive heating: Passive heating may be required during downtime.

Chemical thermal working medium: TES systems require a variety of high temperature
chemical thermal working medium.

Application occasions: The application occasions for TES systems are relatively limited.
Compressed air energy storage

Thermochemica
l energy storage
(TCES) system.
The TCES bed
is a bed of solid
particles that
undergo a
decomposition
reaction when
heated by hot
air.
Advantages
Clean storage: CAES systems are clean storage medium and have minimal environmental
impact.

Long lifetime: CAES systems can last for around 40 years.

Low maintenance: CAES systems require minimal maintenance.

High energy capacity: CAES systems have a high energy capacity and power rating.

Black start capabilities: CAES systems can continue to operate without an external power
supply in case of a power failure.

Peaking function: CAES systems can be used to directly drive the compressor with wind
energy, which improves efficiency.
Disadvantages
Low efficiency: CAES systems have a low energy efficiency, usually between 40–70%. This
is because some energy is lost as heat when the air is compressed and expanded.

Reliance on other energy sources: CAES systems rely on energy from other sources to
expand and decompress the pressurized air.

Large gas storage units: CAES systems require large gas storage units.

Geological conditions: CAES systems are dependent on certain geological conditions.

Fossil fuel reliance: CAES systems rely on burning fossil fuels.