DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Design Against Static Load

 Introduction
 To ensure machine elements work safely throughout design life. It is very important to analyze the strength
under various/service loads, and predict potential failures at early design stage well before the machine is built or
fabrication.

 To design an element strong enough against failure due to strength analysis by evaluating each possible failure
w.r.t various loads and stresses.

 In this chapter, we start with a brief introduction to loads and stresses, followed by a concise review of static
strength due to static loads
Types of loads

A load is any external force, torque or moment applied to a machine element. The basic forms of load include tension,
compression, shear, torsional and friction, as well moments
• To describe a load, information about its magnitude, direction, point of action, duration, frequency and the number of
cycles is required

• Based on the loading history, the load applied to an element may be static, fluctuating, shock or impact and random
loads.

• But, an ideal static load is applied slowly and it may never removed. Gravity load is a typical example of static load.

• The load magnitude, direction and point of action of a static load do not change with time, or change very slowly.

• A static load can be an axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load or any
combination of these.

• Also, few M/C elements are subjected to pure static loads, static loads are still the fundamentals to the sizing of
machine elements.
• Fluctuating or variable loads vary with time during the normal service of an element.
They are typically applied for a long duration so the element experiences many thousands or millions of stress cycles
during its expected life.

 An example is the load acting on a pair of meshing gear teeth.

 Although every machine load is important, it is estimated that 60–90% of machine elements fail from fluctuating
loads due to fatigue.

• Shock or impact loads are the loads applied suddenly and rapidly, (for example, force acts when car is subjected
into crash).

• When the applied loads vary irregularly in their amplitudes, such as wind loads acting on wind turbine blades, the
loads are called random loads
Stress: Internal resistance to external force

The different forces acting on a machine part produces various types of stresses.

• If Fn and Fs are two possible ways of applying load on a given area.

Fn causes a Normal stress, it is also called direct stress (Parallel to axis of the component).

Fs creates Tangential stress which is generally called Shear stress (the applied force offset from axis of
component).

• In Engineering world, there are two types of stresses Normal and Shear

(Note:- Tensile, compression, bending, torsion and Von-Mises stresses are forms of normal and shear)
Types of Stress acting in Machine Components
Stresses in Machine Elements
• Bearing Pressure (Contact Stresses):
(When a body is pressed against another body, compressive stresses are generated on the external surfaces and are
called bearing pressure or crushing stresses)

• Thermal Stresses: (Whenever there is increase or decrease in temp of the body)

• Impact Stress: (The stress produced due to falling load with impact
 Stresses can be Compressive, Tensile or Shear (in terms of specific components).

 We may apply forces/constraints and stresses will develop within the material (including the surface)  we apply
forces (or constraints) and not stresses.
 The source of stress could be an external agent (forces etc.) or could be internal (dislocations, coherent precipitates
etc.)  i.e. stresses can exist in a body in the absence of external agents (residual stress).

Does stress cause strain or does strain cause stress?

 Strain without stress  heat a unconstrained body (it will expand and no stresses will develop)
 Stress without Strain  heat a body constrained between rigid walls (it will not be able to expand but stresses will develop).

Both situations are possible (at least from a perspective of easy understanding).

It is important to note that in most cases it is strain which is measured experimentally and converted to stress via stress-
strain relations involving material properties
A C.I. flat, 300 mm long and of 30 mm x 50 mm uniform section, is acted upon by the following forces uniformly
distributed over the respective cross-section; 25 kN in the direction of length (tensile); 350 kN in the direction of the
width (compressive); and 200 kN in the direction of thickness (tensile). Determine the change in the volume of flat.

Take E = 140 GN/m2 and m=4.

Design Against Static loading
4.1 MODES OF FAILURE:
A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.
(i) failure by elastic deflection;
(ii) failure by general yielding; and
(iii) failure by fracture.

4.2 FACTOR OF SAFETY:

While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in case of an
accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety (fs).
The factor of safety is defined as
(fs) = Failure stress/Allowable stress (Working stress, Design stress, Safe); or
(fs) = failure load/working load

For ductile materials, the allowable stress σ is obtained by the following

relationship:

For brittle materials, the relationship:

where Syt and Sut are the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the material
respectively.
• STRESS–STRAIN RELATIONSHIP:

• SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN :

• STRESSES DUE TO BENDING MOMENT:

When the cross-section is irregular, as shown in Fig,

the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis Xg is
The parallel-axis theorem for this area is given by
• STRESSES DUE TO TORSIONAL MOMENT:
ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING: There are certain mechanical components subjected to an external force,
tensile or compressive, which does not pass through the centroid of the cross-section.
State of Stress:
• On a given area we may have some Normal stress and also some Tangential stress, these two stresses
together define the state of stress.
• ζ is shear stress applied on one surface, As a reaction we may get 3 stresses in all the 3 faces, these are
called complimentary shear stresses.

Triaxial Loading System: (Loads act on all the 3 directions)

σxx ζxy ζxz
ζ yx σyy ζyz
ζzx ζzy σzz ζxy= ζyx ;

This 3x3 matrix represents state of stress. It is observed that all diagonal terms are normal stresses and the off
diagonal terms are shear stresses. This is a symmetric matrix. We can now state that the state of stress at a
point in 3 dimensionally loaded member consists of 3 normal stress (σx, σy, and σz ) components and 3 shear
stress (ζx, ζy, and ζz ) components.
• Biaxial Loading System: (Consider 2 dimensional loaded member) This consists of 2 normal stresses
(σx, σy,) and 1 shear stress (ζ)
σx ζ
ζ σy
   xx  xy 
    xx  xy  xz 
  yx  yy 
 Components of a stress:  

 yx  yy  yz 
2D (plane stress)  4 components [2  (tensile) and 2  (shear)]   zx  zy  zz 
3D  9 components [3  (tensile) and 6  (shear)]  

 xx
First index refers to the plane and the second to the direction
Direction

 xx  11 x-plane, x-direction Plane

Also written as x

 xy  xy  12 x-plane, y-direction

As stress is a symmetric tensor in ‘normal’ materials

 yx  yx  21  
  The normal stresses (x & y) tend to elongate the body
(the square in the figure below) → this will give rise to
volume changes.
 The shear stress (xy = yx) will tend to change the shape of
the body → without changing its volume

Stress on one axes set (x, y) can be mapped to stress on another axes (x’, y’) set by the
formulae as below

  x  y   x  y 
 x '     Cos 2   xy Sin 2
 2   2 
  x  y   x  y 
 y '     Cos 2   xy Sin 2
 2   2 
 x  y 
 x ' y '    Sin 2   xy Cos 2
 2 
There will always be one unique axis set (x’, y’), wherein the shear stresses are zero. The
corresponding planes are the principal planes and the principal normal stresses are labeled
1

 max 1   x   y     x   y 
2
2
2
2 xy
     xy   Tan2 Principal plane Tan2 n 
 min  2  2    2 
   x  y

There exist planes where shear stress is zero. These planes also correspond to extremum in
normal stresses. Planes of extremum shear stress are 45 from planes of zero shear stress
(which correspond to the principal planes).

  x   y 
1
 x   y  2
2
2

 max      xy   Tan2 Max shear stress plane Tan2 s 

  2   2 xy
The simplest case can be loading in uniaxial tension

=100 MPa

110
100
90
80
 For x and y as in the figure only the 70

vertical and horizontal planes feel no 60

50
Normal stresses reaches extremum
when shear stress is zero
shear stress (every other plane feels 40

Stress→
shear stress). This is in spite of the fact 30
20
that we applied only a tensile force. 10

 Shear stress is maximum at 45. For xx = 0

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
q→
100MPa, |max| = 50 MPa. -20 sx
sX
-30 sy
sY
-40 txy
tXY
tsx+sy
-50
-60
Note that every inclined plane feels
shear stress
If we push along one direction (say y) and pull along another direction (say x), with equal
magnitude

= –100 MPa

110
100
=100 MPa 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Stress→
10
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
-20
-30
-40
-50
This loading is equivalent of applying sx
-60 sX
shear stress at planes inclined at 45.
-70 sy
sY
-80
txy
tXY
-90
-100
q→ t sx+sy
-110
 If we pull along one direction (say x) and push along another direction (say y) with
lesser force.

= –50 MPa
110
100
90
80
=100 MPa 70
60
50
40
30

Stress→
20
10
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
-20
-30
-40 sx
sX
-50
sy
sY
-60
-70 txy
tXY
-80
q→ tsx+sy
-90
Biaxial tension (2D hydrostatic state of stress)

110

100
= 100 MPa
90

80

70
=100 MPa 60

Stress→
50

40

30 sx
sX
sy
20 sY
txy
tXY
10
q→ tsx+sy
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
-10
Only shear forces applied

Load applied 110

100
Body
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Stress→
10
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
-20 q→
-30
-40
-50
-60 sx
sX
-70 sy
sY
-80
txy
tXY
-90
-100 t sx+sy
-110
=100 MPa
 Hydrostatic stress Deviatoric stress
  xx   yy 
 
 2 

= +    xx   yy 
 
 2 

  xx  xy  ( xx   yy )
 ij   hydrostatic
2D
 m 
  yx  yy  2

  xx   yy    xx   yy 
 xy   0    
 0    m   yy 2 2
xy
 ij  m 
        
0   
    m    xy    m  xx    xx   yy     xx   yy 
 0    yx 
Hydorstatic Part Deviatoric part        2           2   
Hydrostatic part Deviatoric part
 Mohr’s circle representation of stress
 A nice geometrical way of understanding stress is the Mohr’s circle representation of stress.
 In plane stress condition (2D) the stresses can be written as:
  x  y    x   y    x  y    x   y   x  y 
 x '    Cos 2   xy Sin 2  y '    Cos 2   xy Sin 2  x ' y '    Sin 2   xy Cos 2
 2   2   2   2   2 

This can be rearranged as:

  x  y    x   y   y  x 
 x'     cos 2   xy sin 2  x ' y '   sin 2   xy cos 2
 2   2   2 

From this we can get:

2 2
   x  y    x  y  This is of
  x'       x ' y ' 
2
   xy
2
( x  a )2  y 2 r 2
  2   2  the form
Which is the equation of a circle with:
    y  
Centre( a,0)   x  ,0 
 2  
1
   x   y 2 2
2

Radius  max      xy  
  2  

Angle  in physical element is represented

by 2 on Mohr's circle. So 45 on the
physical element is 90 in Mohr’s circle.
Mohr’s circle for various specific cases
 Considering specific cases can help us understand the utility of the Mohr’s circle.
Case-1 Uniaxial tension  Planes A & B are principal planes.
 2 = 0.
 r = (1/2)

Case-2 Uniaxial compression  Planes A & B are principal planes.

 1 = 0.
 2 is negative.
Case-3 Equi-biaxial tension  The circle collapses to a point.
(rMohr’s cicle = 0).
 2 = 2.
 xy is zero.

Case-4 Uniaxial tension  Planes A & B are principal planes.

 2 = 0.
 The Mohr’s circle will look
exactly identical for the case
below of pure shear just that
planes C & D are 45. (Considered in
case-5)
Case-5 Pure Shear  The principal planes are at 45 to
the C & D planes. C & D are the
principal shear planes.
FAILURE OF DUCTILE MATERIALS UNDER STATIC LOADING

While ductile materials will fracture if statically stressed beyond their ultimate
tensile strength, their failure in machine parts is generally considered to occur
when they yield under static loading.

Several theories have been formulated to explain this failure

• The maximum normal-stress theory,

• The maximum normal-strain theory,
• The total strain-energy theory,
• The distortion-energy (νon Mises-Hencky) theory, and
• The maximum shear-stress theory

Of these only the last two agree closely with experimental data for this case,
and of those, the νon Mises-Hencky theory is the most accurate.
The von Mises-Hencky or Distortion-Energy Theory

The microscopic yielding mechanism is due to relative sliding of the material's

atoms within their lattice structure.

This sliding is caused by shear stress and is accompanied by distortion of the

shape of the part.

The energy stored in the part from this distortion is an indicator of the
magnitude of the shear stress present.

The total strain energy in a loaded part can be considered to consist of two
components - one due to hydrostatic loading which changes its volume, and
one due to distortion, which changes its shape.
If we separate the two components, the distortion-energy portion will give a
measure of the shear stress present. Let Uh, represent the hydrostatic or

volumetric component and Ud the distortion-energy component, then

U=Uh+U d

We can also express each of the principal stresses in terms of a hydrostatic

(or volumetric) component σh, that is common to each face and a distortion

component σtd that is unique to each face, where the subscript i represents
the principal stress direction, 1, 2, or 3:
Adding the three principal stresses

For a volumetric change with no distortion, the term in parentheses must be

zero, giving an expression for the volumetric or hydrostatic component of stress
σh:

Now, the strain energy Uh associated with the hydrostatic volume change can
be found by replacing each principal stress in strain energy equation
DISTORTION ENERGY The distortion energy Ud is now found by subtracting

equation Uh from U in accordance with equation 5.2

To obtain a failure criterion, we will compare the distortion energy per unit
volume given by equation 5.5 to the distortion energy per unit volume present
in a tensile test specimen at failure, because the tensile test is our principal
source of material-strength data. The failure stress of interest here is the yield
strength Sy. The tensile test is a uniaxial stress state where, at yield, σ 1 = Sy.

and σ2 = σ3 = 0. The distortion energy associated with yielding in the tensile

test is found by substituting these values in equation 5.5:
and the failure criterion is obtained by equating the general expression 5.5 with
the specific failure expression 5.6a to get

which applies to the three-dimensional stress state.

For a two-dimensional stress state, σ2 = 0 and equation 5.6b reduces to
The two-dimensional distortion-energy equation 5.6c describes an ellipse,
which when plotted on the σ1, σ3 axes is as shown in Figure 5-3. The interior
of this ellipse defines the region of combined biaxial stresses safe against
yielding under static loading.
VON MISES EFFECTIVE STRESS
It is often convenient in situations involving combined tensile and shear stresses
acting on the same point to define an effective stress that can be used to
represent the stress combination.

The distortion-energy approach provides a good means to do this for ductile

materials. The von Mises effective stress σ' is defined as the uniaxial tensile
stress that would create the same distortion energy as is created by the actual
combination of applied stresses.

This approach allows us to treat cases of combined, multiaxial tension and

shear stresses as if they were due to pure tensile loading.

The von Mises effective stress σ' for the three-dimensional case is, from
equation 5.6b
This can also be expressed in terms of the applied stresses:

and for the two-dimensional case from equation 5.6c (with σ2 = 0):

and if expressed in terms of the applied stresses:

SAFETY FACTOR
For design purposes it is convenient to include a chosen safety factor N in
the calculation so that the stress state will be safely inside the failure-stress
ellipse of Figure 5-3.

For the three-dimensional stress case this becomes

and for the two-dimensional stress case:

PURE SHEAR
For the case of pure shear as encountered in pure torsional loading the
principal stresses become σ1 = τ = -σ3 and σ2 = 0

The locus of pure torsional

shear stress is a straight line
through the origin at -45°. This
line intersects the failure ellipse
at two points, A and B. The
absolute values of σ1 and σ3 at
these points are found from
equation 5.6c for the two-
dimensional case
This relationship defines the shear yield strength Sys of any ductile material as a

fraction of its yield strength in tension Sy, determined from the tensile test

The Maximum Shear-Stress Theory

The role of shear stress in static failure was recognized prior to the
development of the von Mises approach to the failure analysis of ductile
materials under static loading.

The maximum shear-stress theory states that failure occurs when the
maximum shear stress in a part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile specimen
at yield (one-half of the tensile yield strength). This predicts that the shear yield
strength of a ductile material is
Figure 5-5 shows the hexagonal
failure envelope for the two-
dimensional maximum shear
theory superposed on the
distortion-energy ellipse. It is
inscribed within the ellipse and
contacts it at six points.

Combinations of principal stresses (σ1 and σ3 that lie within this hexagon are
considered safe, and failure is considered to occur when the combined
stress state reaches the hexagonal boundary.
To use this theory for either two- or three-dimensional static stress in
homogeneous, isotropic, ductile materials, first compute the three principal
normal stresses σ1, σ2. σ3 (one of which will be zero for a 2-D case) and the

maximum shear stress. τ13,. Then compare the maximum shear stress to the
failure criterion in equation 5.10. The safety factor for the maximum shear-
stress theory is found from
The Maximum Normal-Stress Theory

This theory is presented for historical interest and completeness but it must
be noted that it is not a safe theory to use for ductile materials

The maximum normal-stress theory states that failure will occur when the
normal stress in the specimen reaches same limit on normal strength such as
tensile yield strength or ultimate tensile strength.

For ductile materials, yield strength is the desired criterion, while, for brittle
materials, ultimate strength is the desired criterion.
Figure 5-7 shows the two-dimensional
failure envelope for the maximum
normal- stress theory. It is a square.
Compare this square envelope to those
shown in Figure 5-5.
In the first and third quadrants, the
maximum normal-stress theory
envelope is coincident with that of the
maximum shear theory.

But, in the second and fourth quadrants, the normal-stress theory envelope is
well outside of both the distortion-energy ellipse and its inscribed maximum-
shear-theory hexagon. Since experiments show that ductile materials fail in
static loading when their stress states are outside of the ellipse, the normal-
stress theory is an unsafe failure criterion in the second and fourth quadrants.
According to this theory failure can occur whenever any one of the principal stresses exceed critical stress
of material. If failure means yielding, then we must take yield point stress as Critical stress. If failure means
complete fracture, then we must take ultimate stress as Critical stress.

for Triaxially loaded member, If, Max {│ σ1 │,│ σ2 │,│ σ3 │} ≥ σCri ⁄ FS, then failure occurs,

for Biaxially loaded member, If, Max { │ σ1 │,│ σ2 │} ≥ σCri, then failure takes place

 Therefore, (σ1 ) = σCri / FS

Where (σCri = Syt or Sut)

Example 4.1 Two plates, subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN, are fixed together by means of
three rivets as shown in Fig. 4.10 (a). The plates and rivets are made of plain carbon steel 10C4
with a tensile yield strength of 250 N/mm2. The yield strength in shear is 50% of the tensile yield
strength, and the factor of safety is 2.5. Neglecting stress concentration, determine (i) the
diameter of the rivets; and (ii) the thickness of the plates.
 Assignment Problems:

What are the theories of failures for ductile material under static loading. Derive the equations for all the theories of
failures

The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a transverse shear force of 5 kN. Find the diameter of
bolt required according to
1. Maximum principal stress theory; 2. Maximum shear stress theory; 3. Maximum principal strain theory;
4. Maximum strain energy theory; and 5. Maximum distortion energy theory.
Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa and poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
A mild steel bracket as shown in Fig. 5.28, is subjected to a pull of 6000 N acting at 45° to its horizontal axis. The
bracket has a rectangular section whose depth is twice the thickness. Find the cross-sectional dimensions of the bracket,
if the permissible stress in the material of the bracket is limited to 60 MPa.

A C-clamp as shown in Fig. 5.29, carries a load P = 25 kN. The cross-section of the clamp at X-X is rectangular having
width equal to twice thickness. Assuming that the clamp is made of steel casting with an allowable stress of 100 MPa,
find its dimensions. Also determine the stresses at sections Y-Y and Z-Z.
 A pump lever rocking shaft is shown in Fig. The pump lever exerts forces of 25 kN and 35 kN concentrated at
150 mm and 200 mm from the left and right hand bearing respectively. Find the diameter of the central portion of
the shaft, if the stress is not to exceeded 100 MPa.

 An axle 1m long is supported in bearings at its ends carries a fly wheel weighing 40 kN at the centre. If the stress
(bending) is not to exceed 60 MPa., find the diameter of the axle.
 An overhang crank with pin and shaft is shown in Fig. A tangential load of 20 kN acts on the crank pin. Determine
the maximum principle stress and maximum shear stress at the centre of the crank shaft bearing.

 A rectangular strut is 150 mm wide and 120 mm thick. It carries a load of 200 kN at an eccentricity of 10 mm in a
plane bisecting the thickness as shown in Fig. Draw the max and min intensities of stress in the section.