DESIGN OF

MACHINE

ELEMENTS

Dynamic Loading
by
Dr. Syed Ismail
 Stress Concentration Factor

In the development of the basic stress equations for M/I = σ/y = E/R
tension, compression, bending, and torsion, it was τ/R = T/J = Cθ/l
assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in
the member under consideration.
It is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes
in the cross sections of the members.

The elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in

the part at these locations. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers,
and the regions in which they occur are called areas of stress
 A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to
relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal
stress. The factors are defined by the equations

where Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear

stresses.
The subscript t in Kt means that this stress-concentration factor depends
for its value only on the geometry of the part. That is, the particular
material used has no effect on the value of Kt. This is why it is called a
theoretical stress-concentration factor
static loading
In ductile (εf ≥ 0.05) materials, the stress-concentration factor is not
usually applied to predict the critical stress, because plastic strain in the
region of the stress is localized and has a strengthening effect. In brittle
materials (εf < 0.05), the geometric stress concentration factor Kt is
applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength.

The best source book is W. D. Pilkey, Peterson’s Stress Concentration Factors, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997
Bar with Transverse Hole in Tension
Bar with Transverse Hole in Bending
Notched Bar in tension
Notched Bar in Bending
Filleted Bar in Tension
Filleted Bar in Bending
Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Tension
Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Torsion
Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Bending
Shaft with Transverse Hole in Torsion
Shaft with Transverse Hole in Bending
Plate Loaded in Tension by a Pin through a Hole
 Stress Concentration Under Dynamic Loading

Ductile materials under dynamic loading behave and fail as if they were brittle.

So, regardless of the ductility or brittleness of the material, the stress-concentration factor
should be applied when dynamic loads (fatigue or impact) are present.

While all materials are affected by stress concentrations under dynamic loads, some
materials are more sensitive than others.

A parameter called notch sensitivity q is defined for various materials and used to modify
the geometric factors Kt, and Kts for a given material under dynamic loading

A notch can be a hole, a groove, a fillet, an abrupt change in cross section, or any disruption
to the smooth contours of a part.

For dynamic loading, we need to modify the theoretical stress-concentration factor based on
the notch sensitivity of the material to obtain a fatigue stress-concentration factor, Kf, which
can be applied to the nominal dynamic stresses.
 Stress Concentration Under Dynamic Loading

Materials have different sensitivity to stress concentrations, which is referred to as the notch
sensitivity of the material.

In general, the more ductile the material, the less notch sensitive it is. Brittle materials are
more notch sensitive.

Neuber made the first thorough study of notch effects and published an equation for the
fatigue stress concentration factor in 1937. Then Kuhn revised the equation, later Peterson
further refined the approach and developed the concept of notch sensitivity as

The notch sensitivity varies in between 0 and 1. The equation can be rewritten as

The notch sensitivity can also be defined from the Kuhn-Hardrath formula in terms of
Neuber’s constant a and notch radius r both expressed in inches.
Dynamic stress

Loads that vary during normal service of the product produce dynamic stress.

Dynamic stress can be cyclic or random.

Cyclic loads produce cyclic stress which can lead to mechanical fatigue failure

Mechanical Fatigue : The progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when
a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The cyclic stress is well below tensile ultimate,
σu and yield, σy , strengths!
In general, fatigue is a problem that affects any structural component or part that moves.
 Automobiles on roads,
 Aircraft (principally the wings) in the air,
 Ships on the high sea constantly battered by waves,
 Nuclear reactors and
 Turbines under cyclic temperature conditions (i.e., cyclic thermal stresses),

and many other components in motion are examples in which the fatigue behavior of a
material assumes a singular importance.
Types of Cyclic Stress

 Repeated and Reversed – Rotating beam with load whose mean stress is zero

 Fluctuating stress (mean stress is not zero):

a. Tensile mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all
tension)
b. Compressive mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all
compression)
c. Repeated, one-direction stress

 min max  min max  min

R a  m 
 max 2 2
Traditionally, the behavior of a material under fatigue is described by the S--N (or σ−N)
curves

Such an S--N curve is frequently called a Ẅohler curve, after the German engineer who
first observed that kind of fatigue behavior in railroad car wheels in the 1860s

S (stress)–N (cycles to failure) curves. (A)

Ferrous and (B) nonferrous metals; SL is
the endurance limit
It is estimated that 90% of service failures of metallic components that undergo movement of one
form or another can be attributed to fatigue

Fracture of a structural member due to repeated cycles of load or fluctuating loads is commonly
referred to as a fatigue failure or fatigue fracture.

The corresponding number of load cycles or time during which the member is subjected to these
loads before fracture occurs is referred to as the fatigue life or endurance limit.

Fatigue life is affected by many factors, such as

Type of load (Uniaxial, bending, torsion) Nature of load-displacement curve (linear, nonlinear)

Frequency of load repetitions or cycling Size of the member

Load history (cyclic load with constant or variable amplitude, random load etc.)

Material flaws Manufacturing method (surface roughness, notches)

Operating temperature (High temperature that results in creep, low temperature that results in
brittleness)
Environmental operating conditions (corrosion)
 The total period of fatigue life may be considered to consist of three phases:
• Initial fatigue damage that produces crack initiation
• Propagation of a crack that results in partial separation of a cross member, until the
remaining uncracked cross section is unable to support the applied load
• Final fracture of the member

Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

The methods of fatigue failure analysis represent a combination of engineering and science.
Engineers use science to solve their problems if the science is available. But available or not, the
problem must be solved, and whatever form the solution takes under these conditions is called
engineering.
Three major approaches used in design and analysis to predict when, if ever, a cyclically loaded
machine component will fail in fatigue over a period of time are presented. The premises of each
approach are quite different but each adds to our understanding of the mechanisms associated
with fatigue.

The three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are
• Stress-life approach
• Strain-life approach
• Fracture mechanics approach

These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.

Life of 1 ≤ N ≤ 103 cycles is generally classified as low-cycle fatigue, whereas high-cycle fatigue is
considered to be N > 103 cycles.
The stress-life approach is the oldest way of treating the cyclic fatigue data. It is useful when
stresses and strains are mostly elastic. The main drawback of this approach is that we are unable
to distinguish between the initiation and propagation phases of fatigue life.

The strain-life approach is useful when there is a significant amount of plastic strain. This
method is especially good for low-cycle fatigue applications. In applying this method, several
idealizations must be compounded, and so some uncertainties will exist in the results.

The fatigue life is typically quite short under these conditions. In the fracture mechanics
approach, we apply the basic ideas of fracture mechanics to cyclic fatigue, i.e., we use the cyclic
stress intensity factor as the crack driver. It allows us to estimate the life spent in propagating a
crack from an initial size to larger size or to the critical size corresponding to failure
 The Stress-Life Method
To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads, specimens are subjected
to repeated or varying forces of specified magnitudes while the cycles or stress reversals are
counted to destruction.

R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam machine is widely used for fatigue testing machine. This
machine subjects the specimen to pure bending (no transverse shear) by means of weights.

Test-specimen geometry for the R. R. Moore

rotating beam machine.

An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue tests. Material: UNS G41300 steel,
normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; maximum Sut = 125 kpsi. (Data from NACA Tech. Note 3866, December 1966.)
Theoretical Fracture strength and its correction factors

The fatigue strengths or endurance limits obtained from standard fatigue-test specimens or
from estimates based on static tests is

σe = f σut f = 0.5 for steels

f = 0.4 for irons, aluminium, copper alloys

This equation must be modified to account for physical differences between the test specimen
and the actual part being designed. Environmental and temperature differences between the
test conditions and the actual conditions must be taken into account.

These and other factors are incorporated into a set of strength reduction factors that are then
multiplied by the theoretical estimate to obtain a corrected fatigue strength or endurance limit
for the particular application.

σ e’ = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Creliab σe

Applying Stress-Concentration Effects with Fluctuating Stresses

The alternating component of stress is treated the same way as it was for the Case of fully
reversed stress. That is, the geometric stress-concentration factor Kt, is found. the material's
notch sensitivity q is determined, and these are used in the below equation to find a fatigue
stress-concentration factor Kf.

The local value of σa, is then found from equation

The mean component of stress σm is treated differently depending on the ductility or

brittleness of the material

If the material is brittle, then the full value of the geometric stress concentration Kt, is usually

applied to the nominal mean stress (σ m)nom to obtain the local mean stress σ m at the notch using
equation
If the material is ductile, authors Juvinall or Budynas employ local notch stress amplitudes
and mean stresses

Where σmax = σa + σm exceeds the yield strength σo, local yielding is expected.
Then we will use these von Mises components to find the safety factor.
Design for Fully Reversed Uniaxial Stresses

Designing for fluctuating uniaxial stresses

In fluctuating stresses, mean stresses are not zero and these must be taken into
account when determining the safety factor.
The criterion equation for the Soderberg line is

The modified Goodman relation to be

The Gerber failure criterion is

The stresses nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm , where n is the design factor or factor of
safety.
 SCF (Due to elliptical hole)
 A flat plate with an elliptical hole and subjected to tensile force, is shown in Fig. 5.7.
It can be proved using the Theory of elasticity that the theoretical stress concentration
factor at the edge of hole is given by,
Components in Finite Life
A = 57.7, b = - 0.718
Example 5.8 A rotating shaft, subjected to a nonrotating force of 5 kN and simply supported between
two bearings A and E is shown in Fig. 5.32(a). The shaft is machined from plain carbon steel 30C8 (Sut
= 500 N/mm2) and the expected reliability is 90%. The equivalent notch radius at the fille section can
be taken as 3 mm. What is the life of the shaft?
 Cumulative Damage Fatigue
• In certain applications, the mechanical component is subjected to different stress levels for different parts of the work cycle.

• The life of such a component is determined by Miner’s equation. Suppose that a component is subjected to completely
reversed stresses (s1) for (n1) cycles, (s2) for (n2) cycles, and so on.

• Let N1 be the number of stress cycles before fatigue failure, if only the alternating stress (s1) is acting. One stress cycle will
consume (1/N1) of the fatigue life and since there are n1 such cycles at this stress level, the proportionate damage of fatigue
life will be [(1/N1)nl] or (nl/Nl).

• Similarly, the proportionate damage at stress level (s2) will be (n2/N2).