DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

PRESENTED BY- MS. PRIYA YADAV

DIGESTION

 Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down

into simple chemical substances that can be absorbed and used as
nutrients by the body.
 Most of the substances in the diet cannot be utilized as such. These
substances must be broken into smaller particles, so that they can be
absorbed into blood and distributed to various parts of the body for
utilization.
 Digestive process is accomplished by mechanical and enzymatic
breakdown of food into simpler chemical compounds.
Function of Digestive System

1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances

2. Breaking them into small particles
3. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract
4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion
5. Digestion of the food particles
6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)
7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body
 Digestive System

 Digestive system is made up of gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or

alimentary canal and accessory organs, which help in the process of
digestion and absorption .
 GI tract is formed by two types of organs:
1. Primary digestive organs.
2. Accessory digestive organs.
Primary Digestive Organs

 Primary digestive organs are the organs where actual digestion takes
place.
 Primary digestive organs are:
 i. Mouth
 ii. Pharynx
 iii. Esophagus
 i v. Stomach
 v. Small intestine
 vi. Large intestine
Accessory Digestive Organs

 Accessory digestive organs are those which help primary digestive

organs in the process of digestion.
 Accessory digestive organs are:
 i. Teeth
 ii. Tongue
 iii. Salivary glands
 i v. Exocrine part of pancreas
 v. Liver
 vi. Gallbladder
WALL OF GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
 In general, wall of the GI tract is formed by four layers which are from
inside out:
 1. Mucus layer
 2. Submucus layer
 3. Muscular layer
 4. Serous or fibrous layer.
Steps of Digestion-

 Ingestion- In this Consumption of or taking in food.

 Digestion- The chemical breakdown of Large Organic Molecules into
smaller components by enzymes.
 Absorption- Is the process by which nutrients from the digestive
system are taken into the blood and distributed throught out of the
body.
 Assimilation- After absorption, assimilation refers to the process by
which the absorbed nutrients are transported to cells through out the
body and utilized for various metabolic functions, such as energy
production, growth and repair.
 Egestion- Is the elimination of food waste materials from the body.
Mouth

 Mouth ingest food.

 Teeth masticates food into small pieces to increase surface area for
digestion
 Saliva (pH 7) moisten and soften food.
 Starch salivary amylase Maltose Maltase Glucose
 Tongue mixes food with saliva and rolls food into a bolus before
swallowing.
Function of Mouth Include

 1. Ingestion of food materials

 2. Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva
 3. Appreciation of taste of the food
 4. Transfer of food (bolus) to the esophagus by swallowing
 5. Role in speech
 6. Social functions such as smiling and other expressions.
Salivary Gland

 In humans, the saliva is secreted by three pairs of major (larger)

salivary glands and some minor (small) salivary glands.
 Major Salivary Glands Are-
 1. Parotid Glands
 2. Submaxillary or Submandibular glands
 3. Sublingual glands.
 Parotid glands are the largest of all salivary glands, situated at the side of the face
just below and in front of the ear. Secretions from these glands are emptied into the
oral cavity by Stensen duct. This duct is about 35 mm to 40 mm long and opens inside
the cheek against the upper second molar tooth .
 Submaxillay glands - Submaxillary glands or submandibular glands are located in
submaxillary triangle, medial to mandible. Saliva from these glands is emptied into
the oral cavity by Wharton duct, The duct opens at the side of frenulum of tongue, by
means of a small opening on the summit of papilla called caruncula sublingualis.
Sublingual Glands

 Sublingual glands are the smallest salivary glands situated in the

mucosa at the floor of the mouth. Saliva from these glands is poured
into 5 to 15 small ducts called ducts of Rivinus. These ducts open on
small papillae beneath the tongue. One of the ducts is larger and it is
called Bartholin duct (Table 37.1)
Blood supply
 Blood Supply
• The liver receives blood from two sources:
• Hepatic artery: Supplies oxygen-rich blood (~25% of blood supply).
• Hepatic portal vein: Carries nutrient-rich blood from the gastrointestinal
tract (~75% of blood supply).
• After processing, blood exits via the hepatic veins into the inferior
vena cava.
Metabolism

1. Carbohydrate Metabolism:
1. Maintains blood glucose levels.
2. Processes include:
1. Glycogenesis: Converts excess glucose into glycogen
for storage.
2. Glycogenolysis: Breaks down glycogen into glucose
when needed.
3. Gluconeogenesis: Synthesizes glucose from non-
carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, glycerol).
 Lipid Metabolism:
• Synthesizes cholesterol and triglycerides.
• Produces lipoproteins (e.g., LDL, HDL) for fat transport.
• Breaks down fatty acids for energy through beta-oxidation
 Protein Metabolism:
1. Synthesizes plasma proteins like albumin, fibrinogen, and clotting factors.
2. Converts ammonia (a toxic byproduct of protein metabolism) into urea via the urea
cycle for excretion by the kidneys.
 B. Bile Production
• The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts, bilirubin, and cholesterol.
• Function:
• Aids in the emulsification and absorption of dietary fats.
• Bilirubin (a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown) is excreted in bile and eliminated
in feces.
 C. Detoxification
• The liver detoxifies harmful substances, including drugs, alcohol, and
metabolic byproducts.
 D. Storage
• Stores essential substances:
• Glycogen (energy reserve).
• Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
• Vitamin B12.
• Iron and copper in bound forms (e.g., ferritin
 F. Hormone and Drug Metabolism
• Inactivates hormones like insulin, glucagon, and steroid hormones.
• Metabolizes and excretes drugs, adjusting their bioavailability and
activity.
 Regenerative Capacity
The liver has a remarkable ability to regenerate after injury or partial
removal, driven by hepatocyte proliferation.
PANCREAS
 Pancreas act as both exocrine and endocrine. .
 Exocrine Function
• Produces and secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
• Location: Retroperitoneal, extending across the abdomen.
• Parts:
• Head: Lies near the duodenum.
• Body: Central portion.
• Tail: Extends toward the spleen.
• Duct System:
• Main pancreatic duct (Wirsung's duct): Carries digestive
enzymes to the duodenum.
• Accessory duct (Santorini's duct): Smaller duct that may connect
to the duodenum.
• Pancreatic juices are released into the duodenum via the pancreatic
duct and bile duct (common bile duct).
PANCREATIC JUICE
 Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas, plays a crucial role in digestion. It
is a clear, alkaline fluid that contains a mix of enzymes, water, and
bicarbonate ions. The key functions of pancreatic juice include:
 1. Enzymatic Breakdown of Nutrients
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest the three major
macronutrients:
• Carbohydrates:
• Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose and other oligosaccharides.
• Proteins:
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin: Break down proteins into smaller polypeptides.
• Carboxypeptidase: Cleaves polypeptides into individual amino acids.
• Fats:
• Lipase: Converts triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Phospholipase and cholesterol esterase: Assist in the digestion of
phospholipids and cholesterol esters.
 2. Neutralization of Acidic Chyme
• Bicarbonate Ions: The alkaline nature of pancreatic juice neutralizes
the acidic chyme from the stomach, providing a suitable pH (around
7.1-8.2) for the optimal activity of pancreatic enzymes.
 3. Activation of Enzymes
• Pancreatic enzymes are secreted in an inactive form (zymogens) to
prevent auto-digestion of the pancreas.
• For example, trypsinogen is activated to trypsin by
enterokinase in the small intestine, which then activates other
zymogens (e.g., chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase).
 4. Support for Absorption
• The breakdown of macronutrients into smaller molecules
(monosaccharides, amino acids, and fatty acids) facilitates their
absorption in the small intestine.
 B. Endocrine Function
• Regulates blood glucose levels by secreting hormones directly into
the bloodstream.
• Islets of Langerhans: Specialized clusters of cells responsible for
hormone production:
• Alpha cells:
• Secrete glucagon.
• Function: Increases blood glucose by stimulating
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
• Beta cells:
• Secrete insulin.
• Function: Lowers blood glucose by facilitating glucose uptake
into cells and promoting glycogenesis.
Succus entericus
 Succus entericus, also known as intestinal juice, plays a vital role in
digestion within the small intestine. It is a slightly alkaline fluid secreted
by the intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) in the mucosa of the small
intestine. The primary functions of succus entericus in digestion are-
1. Succus entericus contains a variety of digestive enzymes that assist in
breaking down macromolecules into absorbable units:
 Peptidases: Break down peptides into amino acids.
 Disaccharidases (e.g., maltase, sucrase, lactase): Convert
disaccharides into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose.
 Lipase: Facilitates the breakdown of fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
 Enterokinase: Activates trypsinogen into trypsin, which then aids protein
digestion.
 2.Neutralization of Acidic Chyme
 Succus entericus has an alkaline pH (7.6-8.0) that helps neutralize
the acidic chyme received from the stomach, protecting the intestinal
mucosa and creating an optimal environment for the activity of
pancreatic enzymes.
3.Facilitating Nutrient Absorption
 The enzymes in succus entericus complete the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, producing monosaccharides, amino
acids, and fatty acids, which are then absorbed by the intestinal villi
into the bloodstream and lymphatic system.
 4. Maintenance of Intestinal Environment
 The mucus in succus entericus provides lubrication and protection to
the intestinal lining, ensuring smooth passage of the food bolus and
reducing mechanical damage.
 In summary, succus entericus is essential for the final stages of
digestion and absorption, ensuring the body can utilize nutrients
effectively.
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins

 1. Carbohydrates
 Digestion
• Mouth:
• Salivary amylase begins breaking down starch into maltose and
dextrins.
• Minimal digestion occurs due to the short time food spends in the
mouth.
• Stomach:
• No significant carbohydrate digestion, as salivary amylase is
inactivated by stomach acid.
• Small Intestine:
• Pancreatic amylase (from pancreatic juice) continues starch
breakdown into maltose, isomaltose, and oligosaccharides.
• Intestinal enzymes (disaccharidases like maltase, sucrase,
and lactase) in the brush border of the small intestine convert
disaccharides into monosaccharides:
• Maltose → Glucose + Glucose
• Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
• Lactose → Glucose + Galactose
 Absorption
• Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose) are absorbed in
the small intestine by:
• Active transport: Glucose and galactose are absorbed via sodium-
glucose transporters (SGLT1).
• Facilitated diffusion: Fructose is absorbed via GLUT5 transporters.
• Monosaccharides enter the bloodstream via GLUT2 transporters for
transport to the liver
 Proteins Digestion
• Stomach:
• Pepsin (activated from pepsinogen by stomach acid) begins
breaking proteins into smaller polypeptides.
• The acidic pH denatures proteins, making them more accessible
for enzymatic cleavage.
• Small Intestine:
• Pancreatic enzymes:
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin break down polypeptides into smaller
peptides
• Carboxypeptidase cleaves terminal amino acids.
 Intestinal enzymes:
Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase in the brush border break
peptides into free amino acids.
 Absorption
• Free amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides are absorbed via:
• Active transport: Sodium-dependent amino acid transporters.
• Peptide transporters (PEPT1): For dipeptides and tripeptides,
which are further broken down into amino acids inside intestinal
cells.
• Amino acids enter the bloodstream and are transported to the
liver.
 3. Fats Digestion
• Mouth: Lingual lipase starts minimal digestion of triglycerides.
• Stomach:
• Gastric lipase continues limited triglyceride digestion.
• Small Intestine:
• Bile salts (from the liver) emulsify fats into tiny droplets
(micelles), increasing surface area for enzymatic action.
• Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides into monoglycerides
and free fatty acids.
• Phospholipase A2 and cholesterol esterase digest
phospholipids and cholesterol esters, respectively.
 Absorption
• Free fatty acids, monoglycerides, and cholesterol are absorbed in the
small intestine:
• They diffuse into enterocytes, where they are re-esterified into
triglycerides.
• Triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids are packaged into
chylomicrons, which are released into the lymphatic system and
eventually enter the bloodstream.