MODULE-3

DESIGN OF SAMPLE
SURVEYS
INTRODUCTION

• All items in any field of inquiry constitute a 'Universe' or

'Population.’
• A complete enumeration of all items in the 'population' is
known as a census inquiry or census survey.
• It is obvious that for any study or investigation census
survey is rather infeasible.
• For example, to have an idea of average per capita
monthly income of the people in India, we will have to
enumerate all the earning individuals in the country,
which is a very difficult task.
• Census survey is impossible in the situations when
population is infinite.
• In some cases when population is finite, but the units are
destroyed while inspected, census survey is not at all
desirable, e.g ., inspection of crackers.
• Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every
item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to
obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a
part of total population.
• In such cases there is no utility of census surveys.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically
called a 'sample' and the selection process is called
'sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as
'sample survey’.
• Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size
n (which is < N) of this population is selected according to
some rule for studying some characteristic of the population,
the group consisting of these n units is known as 'sample’.
• Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e .,
he must plan how a sample should be selected and of what
size such a sample would be.
SAMPLE DESIGN

• A sample design is a definite plan for

obtaining a sample from a given
population.
• It refers to the technique or the
procedure the researcher would adopt
in selecting items for the sample.
• Sample design may as well lay down
the number of items to be included in
the sample i.e ., the size of the sample.
SAMPLE DESIGN
• Sample design is determined before data are
collected.
• There are many sample designs which a
researcher can choose.
• Some designs are relatively more precise and
easier to apply than others.
• Researcher must select/prepare a sample design
which should be reliable and appropriate for his
research study.
The main steps of sampling design are as
follows:
1) Objective: The first step of sampling design
is to define the objectives of survey in clear and
concrete terms. The sponsors or the researchers
of the survey should confirm that the objectives
are commensurate with the money, manpower
and time limit available for the survey.
2) Population: In order to meet the objectives of
the survey, what should be the population? This
question should be answered in the second step.
The population should be clearly defined.
3)Sampling units and frame: A decision has to be taken concerning a
sampling unit before selecting sample.
 Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc ., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may
be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc ., or it may be an
individual.
 The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he
has to select for his study. The list of sampling units is called as 'frame'
or sampling frame. Sampling frame contains the names of all items of
a universe (in case of finite universe only).
 Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
4) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be
selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This is a major
problem before a researcher.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too
small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which
fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility.
 While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine
the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for
the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger
sample is needed.
 The size of population must be kept in view for
this also limits the sample size. The parameters
of interest in a research study must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample.
 Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can
draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we
decide the sample size.
5)Parameters of interest:
Statistical constants of the population are called as
parameters, e.g ., population mean, population
proportion etc.
When we do census survey we get the actual
value of parameters.
On the other hand, when we do sample survey we
get the estimates of unknown population
parameters in place of their actual values.
 In determining the sample design, one must consider
the question of the specific population parameters
which are of interest.
 For instance, we may be interested in estimating the
proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing
some average or the other measure concerning the
population.
 There may also be important sub-groups in the
population about whom we would like to make
estimates.
 All this has a strong impact upon the sample design
we would accept.
6) Data collection: No irrelevant information should
be collected, and no essential information should be
discarded, the objectives of the study should be very
much clear in the mind of surveyor.
7) Non-respondents: Because of practical difficulties,
data may not be collected for all the sampled units.
This non-response tends to change the results. The
reason for non-response should be recorded by the
investigator. Such cases should be handled with
caution.
8) Selection of proper sampling design: The
researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in
selecting the items for the sample. There are several
sample designs out of which the researcher must
chose one for his study.
9) Organizing field work: The success of a survey
depends on the reliable field work. There should be
efficient supervisory staff and trained professional for
the field work.
10) Pilot survey: It is always helpful to try out
the research design on a small scale before going
to the field. This is called as pilot survey. It might
give the better idea of practical problems and
troubles.
11) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations,
from practical point of view, have a major impact
upon decisions relating to not only the size of
sample but also to the type of sample.
 SAMPLING AND NON-
SAMPLING ERRORS
• The errors involved in the collection of data are classified
into sampling and non-sampling errors.
1) Sampling error: can be measured for a given sample
design and size. The measurement of sampling error is
usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’.
 If we increase the sample size, the precision can be
improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own
limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of
collecting data and also enhances the systematic bias.
 Thus, the effective way to increase precision is usually to
select a better sampling design which has a smaller
sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost.
 In practice, however, people prefer a less precise design
because it is easier to adopt the same and also because of
the fact that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way in such a design.
 In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher
must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively small
sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a
better way.
2) Non-sampling errors: Non-sampling errors arise at
the stage of collection and preparation of data and thus
are present in both the sample survey as well as the
census survey.
 Thus the data obtained in census survey is free form
sampling errors, however subjected to non-sampling
errors.
 Non-sampling errors can be reduced by defining the
sample units, frame and the population correctly and
by employing efficient people in the investigations.
SAMPLE SURVEY V/S CENSUS
SURVEY
• In a sample survey, since we study only a subpart of the
whole population, requires less money and less time.
• Most of the times, non-sampling errors are so much large
that the results of sample survey are much more
accurate than those of census survey.
• Non-sampling errors arise due to a number of factors
such as inefficiency of field workers, non-response, bias
due to interviewer, etc.
• These errors are likely to grow when the number of units
inspected increase.
SAMPLE SURVEY CENSUS
SURVEY
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

The method of selecting a sample is of fundamental importance

and depends on the nature of data and investigation. The
techniques of selecting a sample are classified as- Non-
probability sampling and probability sampling.

• Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling

is that sampling procedure which does not afford any
basis for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by different
names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling
and judgement sampling.
• In this type of sampling, items for the sample
are selected deliberately by the researcher, his
choice concerning the items remains supreme
• In other words, under non-probability sampling
the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose
the particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample on the basis that the
small mass that they so select out of a huge
one will be typical or representative of the
whole.
 For instance, if economic conditions of people
living in a state are to be studied, a few towns
and villages may be purposively selected for
intensive study on the principle that they can
be representative of the entire state.
 Thus, the judgement of the organizers of the
study plays an important part in this sampling
design
Quota sampling - is also an example of non-probability sampling.
Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to
be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on how
they are to be filled.
• In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is
left to the interviewer’s discretion.
• This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively
inexpensive.
• But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the
characteristic of random samples.
• Quota samples are essentially judgement samples and inferences
drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a
formal way.
2) Probability sampling:
• Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’.
• Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
• It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are
picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some
mechanical process.
• Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one
item or the other is selected.
 The results obtained from probability or random sampling
can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure
the errors of estimation or the significance of results
obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the
superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate
sampling design.
 Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity
which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a
random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe.
 This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the
best technique of selecting a representative sample.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• Simple Random sampling from a finite population refers to that

method of sample selection which gives each possible sample
combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item
in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
• This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is
selected for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again In
brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random
sampling) are:
(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of
getting
into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another.
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability
of being
chosen.
• Keeping this in view we can define a simple random sample (or
simply a random sample) from a finite population as a sample
which is chosen in such a way that each of the NCn possible
samples has the same probability, 1/NCn , of being selected.
• To make it more clear we take a certain finite population
consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N = 6.
Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it.
Then there are 6 C3 = 20 possible distinct samples of the
required size, and they consist of the elements abc, abd, abe,
abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef,
cde, cdf, cef, and def.
• If we choose one of these samples in such a way that
each has the probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will
then call this a random sample
• We can illustrate the procedure by an example. First of
all we reproduce the first thirty sets of Tippett’s
numbers
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
• Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units
from a population of 5000 units, bearing numbers from 3001
to 8000. We shall select 10 such figures from the above
random numbers which are not less than 3001 and not
greater than 8000. If we randomly decide to read the table
numbers from left to right, starting from the first row itself,
we obtain the following numbers: 6641, 3992, 7979, 5911,
3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356, and 7483.
• The units bearing the above serial numbers would then
constitute our required random sample.
• One may note that it is easy to draw random samples from finite
populations with the aid of random number tables only when
lists are available, and items are readily numbered.
• But in some situations, it is often impossible to proceed in the
way we have narrated above. For example, if we want to
estimate the mean height of trees in a forest, it would not be
possible to number the trees, and choose random numbers to
select a random sample.
• In such situations what we should do is to select some trees for
the sample haphazardly without aim or purpose, and should
treat the sample as a random sample for study purposes.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS:

• Some complex random sampling designs, which are

mixtures of probability and non-probability
sampling methods as below.
(i) Systematic sampling: In some instances, the
most practical way of sampling is to select every ith
item on a list. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling.
• An element of randomness is introduced into this
kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick
up the unit with which to start.
• For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is
desired, the first item would be selected
randomly from the first twenty-five and
thereafter every 25th item would
automatically be included in the sample.
• Thus, in systematic sampling only the first
unit is selected randomly and the remaining
units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals.
• Although a systematic sample is not a random sample in the
strict sense of the term, but it is often considered reasonable to
treat systematic sample as if it were a random sample
• Systematic sampling has certain plus points.
• It can be taken as an improvement over a simple random
sample in as much as the systematic sample is spread more
evenly over the entire population.
• It is an easier and less costlier method of sampling and can be
conveniently used even in case of large populations.
• But there are certain dangers too in using this type of sampling.
If there is a hidden periodicity in the population, systematic
sampling will prove to be an inefficient method of sampling.
• For instance, every 25th item produced by a certain
production process is defective. If we are to select a
4% sample of the items of this process in a
systematic manner, we would either get all
defective items or all good items in our sample
depending upon the random starting position.
• If all elements of the universe are ordered in a
manner representative of the total population, i.e.,
the population list is in random order, systematic
sampling is considered equivalent to random
sampling.
• But if this is not so, then the results of such
sampling may, at times, not be very reliable. In
practice, systematic sampling is used when lists
of population are available and they are of
considerable length.
(ii)Stratified sampling: If a population from
which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified
sampling technique is generally applied in order
to obtain a representative sample.
• Under stratified sampling the population is divided into
several sub-populations that are individually more
homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-
populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
• Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population, we are able to get more precise estimates for
each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the
component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole.
• In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and
detailed information.
The following three questions are highly relevant in the
context of stratified sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from each stratum?
(c) How many items be selected from each stratum or how to
allocate the sample size of each stratum?
• Regarding the first question, we can say that the strata be
formed on the basis of common characteristic(s) of the items
to be put in each stratum.
• This means that various strata be formed in such a way as to
ensure elements being most homogeneous within each
stratum and most heterogeneous between the different
strata.
• In respect of the second question, we can say
that the usual method, for selection of items for
the sample from each stratum, resorted to is
that of simple random sampling. Systematic
sampling can be used if it is considered more
appropriate in certain situations.
• Regarding the third question, we usually follow
the method of proportional allocation under
which the sizes of the samples from the
different strata are kept proportional to the
sizes of the strata.
• In cases where strata differ not only in size but
also in variability and it is considered
reasonable to take larger samples from the
more variable strata and smaller samples from
the less variable strata, we can then account
for both (differences in stratum size and
differences in stratum variability) by using
disproportionate sampling design by requiring:
• (iii) Cluster sampling: If the total area of interest happens to be a
big one, a convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to
divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and
then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually
called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or
samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
• Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number
of relatively small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still
smaller units and then some of these clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the overall sample.
• Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine parts in an
inventory which are defective. Also assume that there are 20000
machine parts in the inventory at a given point of time, stored in 400
cases of 50 each.
• Now using a cluster sampling, we would consider the 400
cases as clusters and randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine
all the machine parts in each randomly selected case.
• Cluster sampling, no doubt, reduces cost by concentrating
surveys in selected clusters. But certainly, it is less precise
than random sampling.
• There is also not as much information in ‘n’ observations
within a cluster as there happens to be in ‘n’ randomly drawn
observations.
• Cluster sampling is used only because of the economic
advantage it possesses; estimates based on cluster samples
are usually more reliable per unit cost.
(iv) Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage sampling is a further
development of the principle of cluster sampling.
• Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of
nationalized banks in India and we want to take a sample of few
banks for this purpose.
• The first stage is to select large primary sampling unit such as
states in a country.
• Then we may select certain districts and interview all banks in the
chosen districts.
• This would represent a two-stage sampling design with the
ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts.
• If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
districts, we select certain towns and interview all banks in the
chosen towns.
• This would represent a three-stage sampling design.
• If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, we
randomly sample banks from each selected town, then it is a case of
using a four-stage sampling plan.
• If we select randomly at all stages, we will have what is known as ‘multi-
stage random sampling design’.
• Ordinarily multi-stage sampling is applied in big inquires extending to a
considerable large geographical area, say, the entire country. There are
two advantages of this sampling design viz.,
(a) It is easier to administer than most single stage designs mainly
because of the fact that sampling frame under multi-stage sampling is
developed in partial units.
(b) A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost under
multistage sampling because of sequential clustering, whereas this is
not possible in most of the simple designs.
v) Sampling with probability proportional to size:
• In case the cluster sampling units do not have the
same number or approximately the same number of
elements, it is considered appropriate to use a
random selection process where the probability of
each cluster being included in the sample is
proportional to the size of the cluster.
• For this purpose, we have to list the number of
elements in each cluster irrespective of the method
of ordering the cluster. Then we must sample
systematically the appropriate number of elements
from the cumulative totals.
• The actual numbers selected in this way do not
refer to individual elements, but indicate which
clusters and how many from the cluster are to
be selected by simple random sampling or by
systematic sampling.
• The results of this type of sampling are
equivalent to those of a simple random sample
and the method is less cumbersome and is also
relatively less expensive.
• (vii) Sequential sampling:
• This sampling design is somewhat complex
sample design.
• The ultimate size of the sample under this
technique is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical
decision rules on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
• This is usually adopted in case of acceptance
sampling plan in context of statistical quality
control.
• When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the
basis of a single sample, it is known as single sampling
• When the decision is to be taken on the basis of two
samples, it is known as double sampling and in case the
decision rests on the basis of more than two samples, but
the number of samples is certain and decided in advance,
the sampling is known as multiple sampling.
• But when the number of samples is more than two, but it is
neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system
is often referred to as sequential sampling.
• Thus, in brief, we can say that in sequential sampling, one
can go on taking samples one after another as long as one
desires to do so.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

• Introduction: In our daily life we are said to measure when we

use some yardstick to determine weight, height, or some other
feature of a physical object.
• We also measure when we judge how well we like a song, a
painting or the personalities of our friends.
• We, thus, measure physical objects as well as abstract concepts.
• Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task,
specially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena.
• Other examples of qualitative characteristics are taste, honesty,
intelligence, and brand royalty.
QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE DATA
• Measurement is defined as a process of associating
numbers or symbols to observations obtained in a
research study.
• These observations could be quantitative or
qualitative.
• For example, in case we are to find the male to
female attendance ratio while conducting a study of
persons who attend some show, then we may
tabulate those who come to the show according to
sex.
• In terms of set theory, this process is one of mapping
the observed physical properties of those coming to
the show (the domain) on to a sex classification (the
The rule of correspondence is:
• If the object in the domain appears to be male,
assign to “0” and if female assign to “1”.
• Similarly, we can record a person’s marital
status as 1, 2, 3 or 4, depending on whether
the person is single, married, widowed or
divorced.
• We can as well record “Yes or No” answers to a
question as “0” and “1” (or as 1 and 2 or
perhaps as 59 and 60).
• In this artificial or nominal way, categorical data
(qualitative or descriptive) can be made into numerical
data and if we thus code the various categories, we
refer to the numbers we record as nominal data.
• Nominal data are numerical in name only, because they
do not share any of the properties of the numbers we
deal in ordinary arithmetic.
• For instance if we record marital status as 1, 2, 3, or 4
as stated above, we cannot write 4 > 2 or 3 < 4 and we
cannot write 3 – 1 = 4 – 2, 1 + 3 = 4 or 4 /2 = 2.
• In those situations when we cannot do anything except set up inequalities, we
refer to the data as ordinal data.
• For instance, if one mineral can scratch another, it receives a higher hardness
number and on Mohs’ scale the numbers from 1 to 10 are assigned respectively
to talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite, feldspar, quartz, topaz, sapphire and
diamond.
• With these numbers we can write 5 > 2 or 6 < 9 as apatite is harder than
gypsum and feldspar is softer than sapphire, but we cannot write for example 10
– 9 = 5 – 4, because the difference in hardness between diamond and sapphire is
actually much greater than that between apatite and fluorite.
• It would also be meaningless to say that topaz is twice as hard as fluorite simply
because their respective hardness numbers on Mohs’ scale are 8 and 4.
• The greater than symbol (i.e., >) in connection with ordinal data may be used to
designate “happier than” “preferred to” and so on.