Computer Organization and Architecture
Designing for Performance
11th Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 6
Internal Memory
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Figure 6.1
Memory Cell Operation
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Table 6.1
Semiconductor Memory Types
Write
Memory Type Category Erasure Volatility
Mechanism
Read-write Electrically,
Random-access memory (RAM) Electrically Volatile
memory byte-level
Read-only memory (ROM) Read-only Masks
Not possible
Programmable ROM (PROM) memory
UV light,
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
chip-level
Nonvolatile
Electrically Erasable PROM Read-mostly Electrically, Electrically
(EEPROM) memory byte-level
Electrically,
Flash memory
block-level
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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• RAM technology is divided into two technologies:
– Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
– Static RAM (SRAM)
• DRAM
– Made with cells that store data as charge on capacitors
– Presence or absence of charge in a capacitor is interpreted as a
binary 1 or 0
– Requires periodic charge refreshing to maintain data storage
– The term dynamic refers to tendency of the stored charge to leak
away, even with power continuously applied
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Figure 6.2
Typical Memory Cell Structures
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Static RAM (SRAM)
• Digital device that uses the same logic elements used
in the processor
• Binary values are stored using traditional flip-flop logic
gate configurations
• Will hold its data as long as power is supplied to it
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SRAM versus DRAM SRAM
• Both volatile
– Power must be continuously supplied to the memory to preserve the bit values
• Dynamic cell
– Simpler to build, smaller
– More dense (smaller cells = more cells per unit area) DRAM
– Less expensive
– Requires the supporting refresh circuitry
– Tend to be favored for large memory requirements
– Used for main memory
• Static
– Faster
– Used for cache memory (both on and off chip)
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Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Contains a permanent pattern of data that cannot be changed
or added to
• No power source is required to maintain the bit values in
memory
• Data or program is permanently in main memory and never
needs to be loaded from a secondary storage device
• Data is actually wired into the chip as part of the fabrication
process
– Disadvantages of this:
▪ No room for error, if one bit is wrong the whole batch of ROMs must be
thrown out
▪ Data insertion step includes a relatively large fixed cost
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Programmable ROM (PROM)
• Less expensive alternative
• Nonvolatile and may be written into only once
• Writing process is performed electrically and may be
performed by supplier or customer at a time later than
the original chip fabrication
• Special equipment is required for the writing process
• Provides flexibility and convenience
• Attractive for high volume production runs
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Read-Mostly Memory
Flash
EPROM EEPROM
Memory
Electrically erasable Intermediate between
Erasable programmable read- EPROM and EEPROM in
programmable read- only memory both cost and
only memory
functionality
Can be written into at
any time without
erasing prior contents Uses an electrical
Erasure process can be erasing technology,
performed repeatedly Combines the does not provide byte-
advantage of non- level erasure
volatility with the
flexibility of being
updatable in place
More expensive than Microchip is organized
PROM but it has the so that a section of
advantage of the More expensive than memory cells are
multiple update EPROM erased in a single
capability action or “flash”
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Figure 6.3
Typical 16-Mbit DRAM (4M 4)
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Figure 6.4
Typical Memory Package Pins and Signals
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Figure 6.5
256-KByte Memory Organization
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Figure 6.6
1-MB Memory Organization
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Composed of a collection of
Interleaved Memory
DRAM chips
Grouped together to form a
memory bank
Each bank is independently
able to service a memory
read or write request
K banks can service K
requests simultaneously,
increasing memory read or
write rates by a factor of K
If consecutive words of
memory are stored in
different banks, the transfer
of a block of memory is
speeded up
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Error Correction
• Hard Failure
– Permanent physical defect
– Memory cell or cells affected cannot reliably store data but become stuck at 0 or 1
or switch erratically between 0 and 1
– Can be caused by:
▪ Harsh environmental abuse
▪ Manufacturing defects
▪ Wear
• Soft Error
– Random, non-destructive event that alters the contents of one or more memory
cells
– No permanent damage to memory
– Can be caused by:
▪ Power supply problems
▪ Alpha particles
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Figure 6.7
Error-Correcting Code Function
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Figure 6.8
Hamming Error-Correcting Code
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Table 6.2
Increase in Word Length with Error
Correction
Single-Error Correction/
Single-Error Correction
Double-Error Detection
Data Bits Check Bits % Increase Check Bits % Increase
8 4 50.0 5 62.5
16 5 31.25 6 37.5
32 6 18.75 7 21.875
64 7 10.94 8 12.5
128 8 6.25 9 7.03
256 9 3.52 10 3.91
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Figure 6.9
Layout of Data Bits and Check Bits
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Figure 6.10
Check Bit Calculation
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Figure 6.11
Hamming SEC-DEC Code
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Advanced DRAM Organization SDRAM
• One of the most critical system bottlenecks when
using high-performance processors is the
interface to main internal memory
DDR-DRAM
• The traditional DRAM chip is constrained both by
its internal architecture and by its interface to the
processor’s memory bus
RDRAM
• A number of enhancements to the basic DRAM
architecture have been explored
– The schemes that currently dominate the market
are SDRAM and DDR-DRAM
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Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
One of the most widely used forms of DRAM
Exchanges data with the processor
synchronized to an external clock signal and
running at the full speed of the
processor/memory bus without imposing wait
states
With synchronous access the DRAM moves
data in and out under control of the system
clock
• The processor or other master issues the
instruction and address information which is
latched by the DRAM
• The DRAM then responds after a set number of
clock cycles
• Meanwhile the master can safely do other tasks
while the SDRAM is processing
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Figure 6.12
256-Mb Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
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Table 6.3
SDRAM Pin Assignments
A0 to A13 Address inputs
BA0, BA1 Bank address lines
CLK Clock input
CKE Clock enable
CS Chip select
RAS Row address strobe
CAS Column address strobe
WE Write enable
DQ0 to DQ7 Data input/output
DQM Data mask
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Figure 6.13
SDRAM Read Timing (burst length = 4,
latency = 2)
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Double Data Rate SDRAM
(DDR SDRAM)
• Developed by the JEDEC Solid State Technology
Association (Electronic Industries Alliance’s
semiconductor-engineering-standardization body)
• Numerous companies make DDR chips, which are widely
used in desktop computers and servers
• DDR achieves higher data rates in three ways:
– First, the data transfer is synchronized to both the rising and falling edge
of the clock, rather than just the rising edge
– Second, DDR uses higher clock rate on the bus to increase the transfer
rate
– Third, a buffering scheme is used
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Table 6.4
DDR Characteristics
DDR1 DDR2 DDR3 DDR4
Prefetch buffer (bits) 2 4 8 8
Voltage level (V) 2.5 1.8 1.5 1.2
Front side bus data rates (Mbps) 200—400 400—1066 800—2133 2133—4266
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Figure 6.14
DDR Generations
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Embedded DRAM
(eDRAM)
• eDRAM is a DRAM integrated on the same chip or MCM of an
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or microprocessor
• For a number of metrics, eDRAM is intermediate between on-
chip SRAM and off-chip DRAM
– For the same surface area, eDRAM provides a larger size memory than
SRAM but smaller than off-chip DRAM
– eDRAM’s cost-per-bit is higher when compared to equivalent stand-alone
DRAM chips used as external memory, but it has a lower cost-per-bit than
SRAM
– Access time to eDRAM is greater than SRAM but, because of its proximity
and the ability to use wider busses, eDRAM provides faster access than
DRAM
• Fundamentally eDRAMs use the same designs and architectures
as DRAM
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Figure 6.15
IBM z13 Storage Control (SC) Chip Layout
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Figure 6.16
Use of eDRAM in Intel Core Systems
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Flash Memory
• Used both for internal memory and external memory applications
• First introduced in the mid-1980’s
• Is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM in both cost and
functionality
• Uses an electrical erasing technology like EEPROM
• It is possible to erase just blocks of memory rather than an entire chip
• Gets its name because the microchip is organized so that a section of
memory cells are erased in a single action
• Does not provide byte-level erasure
• Uses only one transistor per bit so it achieves the high density of
EPROM
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Figure 6.17
Flash Memory Operation
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Figure 6.18
Flash Memory Structures
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Figure 6.19
Kiviat Graphs for Flash Memory
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Figure 6.20
Nonvolatile RAM within the Memory Hierarchy
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Figure 6.21
Nonvolatile RAM Technologies
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Summary • Internal
• Memory
Chapter 6
• Semiconductor main memory • DDR DRAM
– Organization – Synchronous DRAM
– DRAM and SRAM – DDR SDRAM
– Types of ROM
– Chip logic • Flash memory
– Chip packaging – Operation
– Module organization – NOR and NAND flash
– Interleaved memory memory
• Error correction • Newer nonvolatile solid-state
• eDRAM memory technologies
– IBM z13 eDRAM cache – STT-RAM
structure
– PCRAM
– Intel core system cache
structure – ReRAM
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