The Cell

C. Lotus Kikon,
Asst .Professor,
College of Nursing
Learning Objectives

• Define cell
• Describe the structure of the cell
• Enumerate the different parts of the cell in detail
 Introduction

• The basic organizational structure of the

human body is the cell.
 Cell
• The cell is the smallest functional unit of our
body.
• Human body is made up of trillion of cells
• Robert Hook coined the term “cell” in 1665
• The study of cells is called “Cytology”
 Structure of a Cell
• Cell consists of:
• Cell membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
 THE CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

• A cell consists of plasma membrane which

consists of a number of organelles suspended in a
watery fluid called cytoplasm.

• They include nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes,

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, microfilaments and microtubules.

8
9
 Cell Membrane (Plasma
Membrane)
• Cell membrane is the outermost layer of the
cell which envelops the cell.
 Cell Membrane

• Cell membrane is semipermeable and

allows free exchange of certain
substances between extracellular fluid
(ECF) and intracellular fluid ICF).
The cell
membrane is
semipermeable
• Means that it allows certain
substances to pass through
it but not others
Composition of Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is composed of three types of

substances:
1.Lipids
2.Proteins
3.Carbohydrates
Structure of Cell Membrane
• The average cell membrane is about 7.5nm
thick.
• It consists of 2 layers of phospholipids with
some protein molecules embedded in them.
 1. Lipids in cell membrane

• Major lipids in cell membrane

are-phospholipids, cholesterol
and glycolipids.
• About 75% of the membrane
lipids are phospholipids.

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Phospholipids
• Phospholipids are lipids composed of phosphate
and fatty acids.

• A phospholipid molecule
resembles the headed pin in
shape.
• The outer part of phospholipid
is the polar head portion which
is water-soluble (hydrophilic) &
the inner part is the tail portion
which is not soluble in water
(hydrophobic)
Cholesterol

The cholesterol molecules are

arranged in between the
phospholipid molecules. As
phospholipids are soft and oily in
nature, cholesterol helps to pack
the phospholipids in the
membrane and maintain the
structural integrity of cell
membrane.
2. Protein in cell membrane
• The protein layers of the cell membrane are the
electron dense layers situated on either side of
the central lipid layer.
• The protein substances present in these layers
are mostly glycoproteins. These protein
molecules are classified into two categories.
- Integral proteins
- Peripheral proteins
Integral protein: they are also known as transmembrane
proteins, are tightly bound with the cell membranes
Peripheral protein: they are also known as peripheral
membrane proteins do not penetrate the cell membrane
but are embedded partially in the outer and inner surfaces
of the cell membrane.
3. Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane
Carbohydrates molecules form a thin loose covering over the
entire surface of the cell membrane called glycocalyx.
Some carbohydrate molecules are attached with proteins and
form glycoproteins and some are attached with lipids and
form glycolipids
Functions of Cell Membrane
• Protective function: Cell membrane protects the
cytoplasm and the organelles present in the
cytoplasm.
• Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a
semipermeable which allows only some substances
to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other
substances.
• Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the
cell through the cell membrane
Functions of Cell Membrane
• Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste
products from the cell are excreted out through the
cell membrane
• Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the
blood and carbon dioxide leaves the cell and enters
the blood through the cell membrane
• Maintenance of shape & size of the cell: Cell
membrane is responsible for the maintenance of
shape and size of the cell
 Role of Cell Membrane in
Transport of Material into or
out of the cell
 Role of Cell Membrane in
Transport of Material into or
out of the cell
• Some molecules can enter cells by passing through
passive channels in the cell membrane.
• Large molecules enter the cell by the process of
endocytosis
• In this process the molecule invaginates a part of the
cell membrane, which first surrounds the molecule, and
then separates ( from the rest of the cell membrane) to
form an endocytic vesicle. This vesicle can move
through the cystol to other parts of the cell.
Endocytosis
 Role of Cell Membrane in
Transport of Material into or
out of the cell
• Pinocytosis is applied to a process similar to
endocytosis when the vesicles formed are used for
absorption of fluids into the cell.
• Some cells use the process of endocytosis to engulf
foreign matter ( e.g bacteria). The process is then
referred to as phagocytosis.
 Role of Cell Membrane in
Transport of Material into or
out of the cell
Exocytosis
• Molecules produced within the cytoplasm (eg
secretions) may be enclosed in membranes to
form vesicles that approach the cell membrane
and fuse with its internal surface.
• The vesicle then ruptures releasing the molecule
to the exterior. The vesicles in question are
called exocytic vesicles, and the process is called
exocytosis or reverse pinocytosis.
Exocytosis
NUCLEUS
• The nucleus is the largest organelle,
usually located near the center of
the cell & is spherical in shape.
• However, the shape & location of nucleus
vary in different cells.
• Most of the cells have only one nucleus.
Few types of cells like skeletal muscle
cells have many nuclei.
• Nucleus is present in those cells which
divide and produce enzymes.
What are the components of Nucleus?

The Nucleus consists of

• Nuclear membrane
• Nucleoplasm
• Nucleolus
 Nuclear membrane/ Nuclear envelope
?

• The nucleus is covered by a double layered

membrane called nuclear membrane.
• Nuclear membrane encloses the fluid called
nucleoplasm
• Nuclear membrane is porous & permeable in
nature & it allows nucleoplasm to communicate
with the cytoplasm.
 Nucleoplasm
?

• It is a gel like ground substance &

contains large quantities of the
genetic material in the form of
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid).
• DNA is made up of chromatin
threads.
• These chromatin threads become
the rod shaped chromosomes just
before the cell division.
 Nucleolus
?

• One or more nucleoli are present in each nucleus.

• The nucleolus contains RNA (ribonucleic acid) &

some proteins, which are similar to those found in
ribosomes. The RNA is synthesized by chromosomes
and stored in the nucleolus.
Functions of Nucleus
• Controls all the activities of the cell
• Synthesizes RNA
• Forms subunits of ribosomes
• Sends genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for
protein synthesis through messenger RNA
• Controls the cell division through genes
• Stores the hereditary information (in genes)
and transforms this information from one
generation of the species to the next
The Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is the fluid present inside
the cell
• It contains a clear liquid portion called
cystol which contains various substances
like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
electrolytes.
Cytoplasm
• Cytosol = water
• Organelles = solids
• Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit
salad where the Jello is the cytosol
and the fruits (oranges, grapes,
bananas, maybe walnuts, etc.) are
the organelles.
Cell organelles
• The cytoplasm of a typical cell contains various structures
that are referred to as organelles.
• They include: endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
mitochondria
golgi apparatus and
various types of vesicles
Endoplasmic
reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum
• Endoplasmic reticulum is made up of tubules
and microsomal vesicles.
• These structures form an interconnected
network which acts as the link between the
organelles and cell membrane.
• There are two types of Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
• In rough ER granular ribosomes
is attached, giving its rough
appearance and so is called
rough ER

• Attachment of the granular

ribosome also gives the beaded
or granular appearance and so it
is called granular ER
 Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

• Smooth ER appear smooth

as ribosomes are not attached
• It is formed by many
interconnected tubules
• Also agranular ER and also
tubular ER
Functions of
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough ER is concerned with synthesis of proteins
• Smooth ER is concerned with synthesis of lipids,
steroids, cholesterol and carbohydrates.
• It acts as a surface for the attachment of many enzyme
systems and helps in detoxifying drugs, alcohol,
metabolic by-product etc.
• Highly specialized ER is present in some cells. In striated
muscle cells, where it is called sarcoplasmic reticulum, it
is involved in the storage and release of Ca2+ to initiate
muscle contraction.
 Golgi Apparatus (Golgi
complex)
• Golgi apparatus is present in all the cells
except RBCs. It consists of 5- 8 flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae.
• The golgi apparatus is situated near the
nucleus. It has two ends or faces
namely, cis face and trans face. The cis
face is positioned near the ER.
 Golgi Apparatus

• The reticular vesicles from ER enter

the golgi apparatus through cis face.
• The trans face is situated near the cell
membrane. The processed substances
make their exit from Golgi apparatus
through trans face.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
• It is concerned with the processing and delivery of
substances like proteins and lipids to different parts of
the cell.
• It functions like a post office because, it packs the
processed materials into the secretory granules,
secretory vesicles, and lysosomes and dispatch them
either out of the cell or to another part of the cell.
• It also functions like a shipping department of the cell
because it sorts out and the materials for distribution
to their proper destinations.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are membrane bound organelles and are called
the power-generating units of the cell.
• Mitochondria consists of two large layers of membrane:
• outer smooth membrane containing many pores, allowing
free passage of small molecules.
• inner membrane, which is thrown into folds or cristae that
increase the surface area. The folds project into the inner
cavity, which is filled with an amorphous matrix. Amount of
cristae is proportional to the metabolic activity of the cell.
 Functions of Mitochondria
• It is the chief site of tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), electron
transport chain and fatty acid metabolism.
• Release of energy from ATP and guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
• It concentrates Ca2+
 Ribosomes
They are tiny granules composed of RNA (Ribo Nuclei Acid)
and protein. They synthesise proteins destined for insertion in
the plasma membrane or secretion from the cell.
Membrane-bound Vesicles
• The cytoplasm of a cell may contain several types of vesicles. The
contents of any such vesicle are separated from the rest of the
cytoplasm by a membrane which forms the wall of the vesicle.
• Vesicles are formed by budding off from existing areas of membrane.
Some vesicles serve to store material. Other transport material into or
out of the cell, or from one part of a cell to another.
• Vesicles also allow exchange of membrane between different parts of
the cell.
• Some of the vesicles are – Phagosomes, Pinocytic Vesicles, Exocytic
vesicles, Lysosomes,Peroxisomes, centrosome
Phagosomes
• Solid “foreign” materials, including bacteria, may be engulfed
by a cell by the process of phagocytosis.
• In this process the material is surrounded by a part of the cell
membrane. This part of the cell membrane then separates from
the rest of the plasma membrane and forms a free floating
vesicle within the cytoplasm.
• Such membrane bound vesicles, containing solid ingested
material are phagosomes.
Pinocytotic Vesicles
• Some fluid may also be taken into the cytoplasm by a process
similar to phagocytosis.
• In the case of fluids the process is called pinocytosis and the
vesicles formed are called pinocytotic vesicles.

Exocytic Vesicles
• Just as material from outside the cell can be brought into the
cytoplasm by phagocytosis or pinocytosis, materials from
different parts of the cell can be transported to the outside by
vesicles.
• Such vesicles are called exocytic vesicles, and the process of
discharge of cell products in this way is referred to as exocytosis
(or reverse pinocytosis).
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membrane bound spheroid bodies containing
hydrolase enzymes capable of degrading a wide variety of
substances.
• They are present in all cells except mature RBC. They are dominant
in neutrophils.
Functions of Lysosomes
• Digestion of unwanted substances
• Removal of excess secretory products in cells
• Secretory functions: Some lysosomes having secretory functions
are found in some cells eg melanocytes, mast cells etc.
Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are small, spherical, membrane bound
organelle that closely resemble lysosomes, however, they
contain entirely different set of enzymes – oxidases and
catalases. Large peroxisomes are found in liver and kidney
cells.
• They help in the detoxification and oxidation of a wide
variety of compounds.
Centrosome

• The centrosome is situated near the center of the cell close

to the nucleus. It consists of two cylindrical structures called
centrioles which are responsible for the movement of
chromosomes during cell division.
 Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton of the cells is a complex network that gives
shape, support and stability to the cell. It is also essential for the
cellular movements and the response of the cell to external
stimuli. The cytoskeleton consists of three major protein
components viz.
• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments
• Microfilaments
 Cytoskeleton of Cell
Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
Large contractile protein Smallest protein fibers Thicker than microfilament
fibers
Made up of tubulin Made up of two actin Made up of fibrous proteins
strands coiled on each other
Involved in movement of Provide structural support Help maintain shape of cell
Organelle within the cell Maintains shape of cell Stabilise the position of
Chromosomes during cell Helps in muscle contraction organelle like nucleus
division
Cytoskeleton of a cell
CELL EXTENSIONS

• Many cells show projection from the cell

surface. The various types of projections
are described below:
• Cilia
• Flagella
• Microvilli

RNA-
 CELL EXTENSIONS
• Cilia: These are minute hair-like projections from
the surface of some epithelial cells.
• Functional significance of cilia
The cilia lining an epithelial surface move in
coordination with one another the total effect
being like a wave. As a result fluid, mucous, or
small solid objects lying on the epithelium can
be caused to move in a specific direction.
Cilia
 CELL EXTENSIONS
• Flagella: These are somewhat larger processes
having the same basic structure as cilia.
• In the human body the best example of a
flagellum is the tail of the spermatozoon.
• The movements of flagella are different from
those of cilia.
 CELL EXTENSIONS
• Microvilli: These are tiny finger-like projections from the
cell surface.
• Each microvillus consists of an outer covering of plasma
membrane & a cytoplasmic core in which there are
numerous microfilaments ( actin filaments)
• Depending on the arrangement of microvilli on the
epithelium, two types of appearances can be seen:
• Striated border: long microvilli when arranged parallel
give appearance of thickened epithelium. This is seen is
small intestine.
• Brush border: in some cells, microvilli are not arranged
regularly giving the appearance of a brush border.
CELL EXTENSIONS
• Functional significance of microvilli
• Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of
the cell & are, therefore seen mostly at sites
of active absorption. E.g., intestines, the
proximal & distal convoluted tubules of the
kidneys.
Microvilli found in intestine