COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT - I
Networking:

Networking is the process of connecting computers, servers, and devices to share data,
resources, and communication efficiently. It forms the backbone of modern digital
communication systems.
Types of Network Applications

1.Web Browsers:
1. Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge
2. Web browsers allow users to access and navigate websites and web-based
applications over the internet. They use network protocols such as HTTP and
HTTPS to retrieve web content.
2.Email Clients:
1. Examples: Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, Gmail
2. Email clients facilitate the sending, receiving, and management of email
messages over email servers, typically using protocols like SMTP, IMAP, and POP3.
3.File Transfer Protocols:
1. Examples: FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol)
2. These applications enable the transfer of files between devices and servers. FTP
and SFTP ensure secure and efficient file exchange over networks.
4.Messaging Apps:
1. Examples: WhatsApp, Slack, Microsoft Teams
2. Messaging applications allow real-time text, voice, and video communication
between individuals and groups, enhancing collaboration and connectivity.
5.Video Conferencing Tools:
1. Examples: Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Cisco Webex
2. Video conferencing applications enable virtual meetings, webinars, and remote
collaboration through live video and audio communication.
Importance of Network Applications

1.Enhanced Connectivity: Network applications enable individuals and organizations to

connect and communicate seamlessly, bridging geographical distances and fostering
collaboration.

2.Data Sharing and Accessibility: They facilitate the sharing and access of data and
resources, promoting efficient information exchange and decision-making.

3.Streamlined Workflow: Network applications automate processes, reducing manual

tasks and enhancing productivity across various industries.

4.Improved Communication: These applications offer real-time communication

channels, supporting video conferencing, instant messaging, and email, which are
essential for business operations and personal interactions.
What Is Network Hardware?

Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware units operational on a
computer network. These are dedicated hardware components that connect to
each other and enable a network to function effectively and efficiently.

Fundamental devices of a computer network.

Modems: A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet via a
telephone line. The modem at one end converts the computer’s digital signals into
analog signals and sends them through a telephone line. At the other end, it
converts the analog signals to digital signals that are understandable for another
computer.
Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One common use of the router
is to connect a home or office network (LAN) to the internet (WAN). It generally
has a plugged-in internet cable along with cables that connect computers on the
LAN. Alternatively, a LAN connection can also be wireless (Wi-Fi-enabled), making
the network device wireless. These are also referred to as wireless access points
(WAPs).
Hubs, bridges, and switches: Hubs, bridges, and switches are connecting units
that allow multiple devices to connect to the router and enable data transfer to all
devices on a network. A router is a complex device with the capabilities of hubs,
bridges, and even switches.
Hubs: A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. As a result, it
consumes a lot of bandwidth as many computers might not need to receive the
broadcasted data. The hub could be useful in linking a few gaming consoles in a
local multiplayer game via a wired or wireless LAN.
Bridges: A bridge connects two separate LAN networks. It scans for the
receiving device before sending a message. This implies that it avoids
unnecessary data transfers if the receiving device is not there. Moreover, it also
checks to see whether the receiving device has already received the message.
These practices improve the overall performance of the network.
Switches: A switch is more powerful than a hub or a bridge but performs a
similar role. It stores the MAC addresses of network devices and transfers data
packets only to those devices that have requested Thus, when the demand is
high, a switch becomes more efficient as it reduces the amount of latency.
What Is Network Software?
Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of
software that streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and
implementation of computer networks.
Application Layer:
Hosts applications and services providing network information, status, and
resource requirements.
Interfaces with the control layer via APIs, including application logic and API
drivers.

Control Layer:
Acts as the "brain" of the system, managing network control software and
operating systems.
Translates application requirements into network actions and controls the
infrastructure layer via APIs.

Infrastructure Layer:
Contains physical and virtual network devices (data plane).
Responsible for forwarding data packets based on instructions from the control
layer.
Fundamentals of Network Software

Protocols:
Protocols are the rules governing communication between devices. They define
how data is transmitted, formatted, and interpreted.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

Ensures reliable data transmission by establishing a connection before sending
data and confirming receipt (ACK messages). It provides error-checking and flow
control.

Internet Protocol (IP):

Defines addressing and routing methods for data packets across the Internet. IP
addresses uniquely identify devices on the network.

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP):

Used for transferring web pages over the Internet. HTTP is the foundation of
data communication on the web.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

Used for transferring files between a client and server over a network.
Reference Model

It is a conceptual layout mainly used to describe how the

communication between devices should occur.
•One of the main advantages of the reference model is that it defines
the standards for building components of the network thereby
permitting multiple-vendor development.
•Reference models define which functions should be performed at
each layer of the model and thus they promote standardization.

The most important reference models are:

1.OSI reference model.
2.TCP/IP reference model.
Introduction to ISO-OSI Model
There are many users who use computer networks and are located all over the
world. To ensure national and worldwide data communication ISO (ISO stands
for International Organization of Standardization.) developed this model. This is
called a model for open system interconnection (OSI) and is normally called an
OSI model.OSI model architecture consists of seven layers. It defines seven
layers or levels in a complete communication system. These seven layers are
interconnected to each other.

Seven Layers of the OSI Model are as follows:

•Physical Layer
•Data Link Layer
•Network Layer
•Transport Layer
•Session Layer
•Presentation Layer
•Application Layer
1. Physical Layer 2. Data – Link Layer
 The main function of this layer is  Data unit in the data link layer is called
to transmit the individual bits from frame
one node to another node  Logical address : Assigning sender and
 It is the lowest layer of OSI model receiver IP addresses to data packets.
 It establishes, maintains and  Physical address: MAC addresses of
deactivates the physical sender and receiver are assigned to
connection each data packets.
3. Network Layer 4. Transport Layer
 The main purpose of this  The main role of this layer is to check
layer is to receive the data the reliability of the data communication
segments from the transport  A data receivd from the session layer is
layer and transfer them divided into small data units called
from one computer to segments. Each segment contains the
another computer on sender and receiver port number along
different network with the sequence number.
 It controls the flow of the data
5. Session Layer 6. Presentation Layer
 The Session Layer is used to establish  It receives the data from top most layer which
maintain and synchronizes the interaction is application layer
between communicating devices  The data received from application layer is in
 Before the computer can be connected to a form of characters and numbers such as 1234,
server, the computer has to provide ERFF etc.
username and password for authentication  This layer converts these characters and
 Once a connection is established, session numbers into machine understandable format
layer checks whether the connected which is in binary format.
computer is authorized to access the data  Compressing the data to small size so that it
can be transferred faster over a network.
 To protect the sensitivity of data, it encrypts the
data before transmission. And decrypts after
transmission
7. Application Layer
• This layer is used by computer applications such as google
chrome, outlook, firefox etc.,
• Can able to interact with the Users
Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.

Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc.
Writes his email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission
like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, There is a connection established between the sender
and receiver on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds
sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the
information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, Addressing of packets is done in order to find the
best route for transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then
MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error
detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/
optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and
decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email
client.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different
layers. Its advantages include:
•It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand
and troubleshoot.
•It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
•Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
•It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

•The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand
for beginners.
•In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
•Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can
make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
•The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for
understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.
TCP/IP MODEL

• The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another.
• The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so
that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.
• To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the
TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end,
which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from
one end to another end.
•Network Access Layer:
•Responsible for generating data, requesting connections, and framing packets (e.g., Ethernet, PPP).
•Ensures error prevention and identifies network protocols like TCP/IP.

•Internet/Network Layer:
•Handles logical data transmission across networks.
•Key protocols:
•IP: Routes packets using IP addresses (IPv4/IPv6).
•ICMP: Reports network issues.
•ARP: Resolves IP to hardware addresses.
•Example: Sending an email by routing packets via IP addresses to the destination.

•Transport Layer:
•Manages end-to-end communication and ensures data integrity.
•Key protocols:
•TCP: Reliable, ordered transmission with connection establishment.
•UDP: Lightweight, connectionless communication for small data transfers.

•Application Layer:
•Provides end-to-end communication for user applications.
•Key protocols:
•HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication and secure transactions.
•SSH: Encrypted remote access.
•NTP: Synchronizes clocks for accurate timekeeping.
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Model. Package delivery is not guaranteed in the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, Only layers 1,2 and 3 are necessary for All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data
data transmission. transmission.

Layers are integrated, some layers are required by other

Protocols at each layer is independent of the other layer.
layers of TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual framework, less used in Widely used in actual networks like Internet and
practical applications. Communication Systems.
Example Networks:

Internet:
•The internet is a global network of interconnected devices and networks that communicate using
standardized protocols like TCP/IP. It enables billions of devices worldwide to share information,
access resources, and connect users across different locations.
•Real-World Example: Services like Google and Amazon utilize the internet to provide search
engines, cloud storage, online shopping, and streaming platforms. The internet supports global
connectivity for personal, educational, and business purposes.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode):

•ATM is a high-speed, connection-oriented technology primarily used in telecom networks and
financial services. It enables the transfer of data in fixed-size cells, ensuring low latency and high
reliability. ATM technology supports voice, video, and data services over the same network.
•Real-World Example: ATM switches are used in telecommunications to enable reliable
communication in 4G LTE networks. It was also widely adopted in the banking sector for ATMs
(automated teller machines) to facilitate secure and quick financial transactions.
Ethernet:
•Ethernet is a widely used technology for local area networks (LANs) that allows devices to
communicate via a wired connection. It provides high-speed data transfer, typically ranging
from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the standard. Ethernet is known for its reliability
and low-latency communication.
•Real-World Example: Offices use Ethernet for connecting computers, printers, and
servers within a building to enable efficient sharing of resources and data. For instance, a
1 Gbps Ethernet setup is standard in modern workplaces for high-speed communication.

Wireless LANs (WLANs):

•WLANs use wireless communication technology (such as Wi-Fi) to connect devices like
laptops, smartphones, and tablets to a network. They provide flexibility by enabling users
to access the network without needing physical cables. WLANs typically operate within a
limited range, such as homes, offices, or public spaces.
•Real-World Example: Wi-Fi in a Starbucks enables customers to connect their devices
to the internet wirelessly, providing a convenient way to browse, work, or stream while
enjoying a coffee.
Physical Layer:
• The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical
representation of the system.
• It consists of various network components such as power plugs,
connectors, receivers, cable types, etc.
• The physical layer sends data bits from one device(s) (like a
computer) to another device(s).
• The physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s
and 1’s are encoded in a signal).
• The physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the
unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.
Functions Performed by Physical Layer
1.The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can
send per second).
2.It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3.It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4.It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology
through which we can connect the devices with each other).
5.It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6.It provides two types of configuration Point-to-Point configuration and
Multi-Point configuration.
7.It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and
transmission medium.
Transmission Media
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and
the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one
device to another.
Guided Media
Guided or Wired media allows signal energy enclosed and guided within a physical
medium. This media is used either for point-to-point links or a shared link with various
connections. In guided media, interruption is generated by outputs in the adjacent cables.
Proper covering of guided media is required to reduce the interruption problem.

•Twisted Pair Cable: It is made up of insulated copper wires twisted together that’s why it
called is as twisted pair cable. Mostly used in telephone networks and Ethernet cables. It is
affordable.

•Coaxial Cable: In coaxial cable one central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic
shield, and an exterior cover. This type of cable used in television networks and for long-
distance communication lines. It provides better protection against interruption than
twisted pair cables.

•Optical Fiber: This cable uses light signals to transfer data. Made up of glass or plastic
fibers, it provides very high bandwidth and low signal reduction, making it ideal for long-
distance and high-speed data transmission. It immune to electromagnetic obstruction but
more expensive than copper cables.