Chp.

4 Cells
Part 2
 Organelles continued:

4.7 Organelles that Contain DNA

Eukaryotic cells contain energy making organelles that
contain their own molecule of circular DNA

These organelles appear to have been derived from ancient

bacteria that were taken up by eukaryotic cells.

• These organelles include mitochondria and

chloroplasts.

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 4.7 Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are cellular

powerhouses.

• Sites for chemical

reactions called oxidative
metabolism

• The organelle is
surrounded by two
membranes.

Figure 4.9(a) Mitochondria

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 4.7 Chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants

• The organelle is also surrounded by two membranes.

Photo Researchers/Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

Figure 4.10 A chloroplast

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 4.7 Endosymbiosis 1

The theory of endosymbiosis.

• States that some organelles evolved from a symbiosis in
which one cell of a prokaryotic species was engulfed by
and lived inside of a cell of another species of prokaryote
that was a precursor to eukaryotes.
• The engulfed species provided their hosts with advantages
because of special metabolic activities.
• The modern organelles of mitochondria and
chloroplasts are believed to be found in the eukaryotic
descendants of these endosymbiotic prokaryotes.

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 Figure 4.11 Endosymbiosis

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 4.7 Endosymbiosis 2

In addition to the double membranes and circular DNA

found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, there is a lot of other
evidence supporting endosymbiotic theory.
• Mitochondria are about the same size as modern
bacteria.
• The cristae in mitochondria resemble folded membranes
in modern bacteria.
• Mitochondrial ribosomes are similar to modern, bacterial
ribosomes in size and structure.
• Mitochondria divide by fission, just like modern bacteria

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 4.8 The Cytoskeleton: Interior Framework of the Cell

The cytoskeleton is comprised of

an internal framework of protein
fibers that:

• Anchors organelles to fixed

locations

• Supports the shape of the cell

• Helps organize ribosomes and

enzymes needed for synthesis
activities

The cytoskeleton is dynamic and

its components are continually
being rearranged.

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 4.8 Protein Fibers

Three different types of protein

fibers comprise the
cytoskeleton.
• Microfilaments (actin
filaments)
• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments

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 4.8 Centrioles

Centrioles are complex

structures that assemble
microtubules in animal cells
and the cells of most
protists.

• They occur in pairs.

• They are found near the

nuclear envelope.

• They are composed of

microtubules.

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 4.6 Vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane-bounded storage compartments.

• in plants and protists

• In plants, the central vacuole stores water and dissolved

substances.
• In some protists, the contractile vacuole is found near
the cell surface of some protists and accumulates excess
water from inside the cell that it then pumps out.

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 Figure 4.13 A plant central vacuole

Biophoto Associates/Science Source

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 4.8 Cellular Motion
Cilia and Flagella
Not an organelle but an extra feature cells may have.

• Some cells swim by coordinating the beating of

microtubules grouped together to form flagella or cilia.

• Cilia- on surfaces of certain cells; move substances

across cell surfaces
• Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of sperm)

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 Cellular Extensions

Cilia Flagella

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 Figure 3.26 Structure of a cilium.

Outer microtubule
doublet
Dynein arms The doublets
also have
Central Attached motor
microtubule proteins, the
dynein arms.
Cross-linking
proteins between
outer doublets
The outer
Radial spoke microtubule
TEM doublets and the
two central
A cross section through the
microtubules are
Microtubules cilium shows the “9 + 2” held together by
arrangement of microtubules. Cross-linking cross-linking
proteins between proteins and
outer doublets radial spokes.
Radial spoke
Plasma Plasma
membrane membrane Cilium

Basal body Triplet

TEM TEM
A longitudinal section of a A cross section through the Basal body
cilium shows microtubules basal body. The nine outer (centriole)
running the length of the doublets of a cilium extend into
structure. a basal body where each
doublet joins another
microtubule to form a ring of
nine triplets.

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 Table 4.2 Eukaryotic cell structures and their functions 1
Structure Description
Plasma Membrane
An illustration shows the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane embedded with proteins.
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins that encloses a cell and separates its
contents from its surroundings. The bilayer results from the tail-to-tail packing of the phospholipid molecules that
make up the membrane. The proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer are in large part responsible for a cell’s ability
to interact with its environment. Transport proteins provide channels through which molecules and ions enter and
leave the cell across the plasma membrane. Receptor proteins induce changes within the cell when they come in
contact with specific molecules in the environment, such as hormones, or with molecules on the surface of
neighboring cells.
Nucleus
Every cell contains DNA, the hereditary material. The DNA of eukaryotes is isolated within the nucleus, a
spherical organelle surrounded by a double-membrane structure called the nuclear envelope. This envelope is
An illustration shows the spherical nucleus cut open to reveal the
structure inside. studded with pores that control traffic into and out of the nucleus. The DNA contains the genes that code for the
proteins synthesized by the cell. Stabilized by proteins, it forms chromatin, the major component of the nucleus.
When the cell prepares to divide, the chromatin of the nucleus condenses into threadlike chromosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell is compartmentalization, achieved by an extensive endomembrane system
that weaves through the cell interior. The membrane network is called the endoplasmic reticulum, or E R. The E R
begins at the nuclear envelope and extends out into the cytoplasm, its sheets of membrane weaving through the
An illustration shows the network of the endoplasmic reticulum.
cell interior. Rough E R contains numerous ribosomes that give it a bumpy appearance. These ribosomes
manufacture proteins destined for the E R or for other parts of the cell. E R without these attached ribosomes is
called smooth E R, which often functions to detoxify harmful substances or to aid in the synthesis of lipids. Sugar
side chains are added to molecules as they pass through the E R. Delivery of molecules to other parts of the cell
is via vesicles that pinch off from the borders of the rough E R.
Golgi Complex
An illustration shows the Golgi complex with a few annotated
parts.
At various locations within the cytoplasm, flattened stacks of membranes occur. Animal cells may contain 20,
plant cells several hundred. Collectively, they are referred to as the Golgi complex. Molecules manufactured in the
ER pass to the Golgi complex within vesicles. The Golgi sorts and packages these molecules and also
synthesizes carbohydrates, adding sugar side chains to molecules as they pass through the stacks of
membranes. The Golgi then directs the molecules to lysosomes, secretory vesicles, or the plasma membrane.

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 Table 4.2 Eukaryotic cell structures and their functions 2
Structure Description
Mitochondrion
A cross-sectional view of the structure of mitochondria.
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins that encloses a cell and separates its
contents from its surroundings. The bilayer results from the tail-to-tail packing of the phospholipid molecules that
make up the membrane. The proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer are in large part responsible for a cell’s ability to
interact with its environment. Transport proteins provide channels through which molecules and ions enter and
leave the cell across the plasma membrane. Receptor proteins induce changes within the cell when they come in
contact with specific molecules in the environment, such as hormones, or with molecules on the surface of
neighboring cells.

Chloroplast
An illustration shows the structure of chloroplast.
The green color of plants and algae results from cell organelles called chloroplasts rich in the photosynthetic green
pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is the sunlight-powered process that converts CO2 in the air to the organic
molecules of which all living things are composed. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, are composed of two
membranes separated by an intermembrane space. In a chloroplast, the inner membrane pinches into a series of
sacs called thylakoids, which pile up in columns called grana. The chlorophyll-facilitated light reactions of
photosynthesis take place within the thylakoids. These are suspended in a semiliquid substance called the stroma.
Cytoskeleton
An illustration shows the 3 protein fibers of the cytoskeleton.
The cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells is crisscrossed by a network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton that
supports the shape of the cell and anchors organelles to fixed locations. The cytoskeleton is a dynamic structure,
composed of three kinds of fibers. Long actin filaments are responsible for cellular movements such as contraction,
crawling, and the “pinching” that occurs as cells divide. Hollow microtubule tubes, constantly forming and
disassembling, facilitate cellular movements and are responsible for moving materials within the cell. Special motor
proteins move organelles around the cell on microtubular “tracks.” Durable intermediate filaments provide the cell
with structural stability.

Centrioles
An illustration shows the structure of centrioles.
Centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells of animals and most protists. They occur in pairs, usually
located at right angles to each other near the nucleus. Centrioles help assemble the animal cell’s microtubules,
playing a key role in producing the microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division. Centrioles are also
involved in the formation of cilia and flagella, which are composed of sets of microtubules. Cells of plants and fungi
lack centrioles, and cell biologists are still in the process of characterizing their microtubule-organizing centers.

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 4.9 Outside the Plasma Membrane

Plants, fungi, and many protists

cells have cell walls on the
outside of their cells. Animal and
some protist cells do not.

Cell walls protect and support

cells.

Plant cell walls include:

• Primary walls laid first

• Middle lamella stick adjacent

cell walls together

• Secondary walls laid inside the

primary walls

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 4.9 An Extracellular Matrix Surrounds Animal Cells

• Animal cells secrete an

elaborate mixture
of glycoproteins outside
of the cell forming
the extracellular
matrix (E C M).

• The E C M forms a
protective layer over the
outside of the cell, but
does not provide support
like a cell wall.

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 Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane

Different ways of moving molecules in and

out of the cell

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 4.10 Movement of Materials Across the Cell

Movement of water and nutrients into a cell or elimination of

wastes out of cell is essential for survival.
This movement occurs across a biological membrane in one
of three ways:
• Diffusion
• Transport through membrane proteins
• Membrane folding

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 4.10 Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration is termed
diffusion.

Molecules diffuse down a concentration gradient from higher

to lower concentrations.

• Diffusion ends when equilibrium is reached.

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 Key Biological Process: Diffusion

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 4.10 Selective Permeability

Selective permeability allows cells to control specifically

what enters and leaves.

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 4.11 Facilitated Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

• An alternate way to get molecules across

• Proteins act as carriers that can bind only to specific

molecules and transport them.

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 Key Biological Process: Facilitated Diffusion

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 4.12 Osmosis

Water moves down its concentration gradient into or out of a

cell through a process called osmosis.

• The movement of water is dependent on the concentration

of other substances in a solution.

• Occurs when water concentration different on the two

sides of a membrane

• When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by

membrane impermeable to solutes, osmosis (only water
molecules move) occurs until equilibrium reached

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Figure 3.8a Influence of membrane permeability on diffusion and osmosis.

Membrane permeable to both solutes and water

Solute and water molecules move down their concentration gradients
in opposite directions. Fluid volume remains the same in both compartments.

Left Right
compartment: compartment:
Solution with Solution with Both solutions have the
lower osmolarity greater osmolarity same osmolarity: volume
unchanged

Solute

Freely Solute
permeable molecules
membrane (sugar)

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Figure 3.8b Influence of membrane permeability on diffusion and osmosis.

Membrane permeable to water, impermeable to solutes

Solute molecules are prevented from moving but water moves by osmosis.
Volume increases in the compartment with the higher osmolarity.

Both solutions have identical

osmolarity, but volume of the
solution on the right is greater
Left Right because only water is
compartment compartment free to move

Selectively Solute
permeable molecules
membrane (sugar)

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 4.12 Solutes Concentration

The concentration of all molecules (solutes) dissolved in a

solution is called the osmotic concentration of the solution.

• If the osmotic concentrations of two solutions are equal,

the solutions are each called isotonic.

• If two solutions have unequal osmotic concentration, the

solution with the higher solute concentration is said to be
hypertonic, and the solution with the lower solute
concentration is said to be hypotonic.

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 4.12 Osmotic Pressure

Movement of water by osmosis into a cell causes pressure

called osmotic pressure.

• Enough pressure may cause a cell to swell and burst.

• Osmotic pressure explains why so many cell types are

reinforced by cell walls.

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure of the cytoplasm

pushing out against the cell membrane.

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 Figure 4.21 How solutes create osmotic pressure

David M. Phillips/Science Source

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 4.12 Maintaining Osmotic Balance

Organisms have developed many solutions to maintain

osmotic balance.

• Extrusion using contractile vacuoles to eliminate excess

water.

• Turgor pressure is created by plants because their cells

are hypertonic to the environment (high solute in central
vacuole) causing water to move in to cell and pushing the
cell membrane against the cell wall.

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 4.13 Bulk Passage into and out of Cells

Bulky substances are contained within vesicles as they are

moved into and out of a cell.

• Endocytosis is the engulfing of substances outside of the

cell in order to form a vesicle that is brought inside the cell.

• Exocytosis is the discharge of substances from vesicles

at the inner surface of the cell.

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 4.13 Forms of Endocytosis

Forms of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis is endocytosis of particulate (solid) matter.
• Pinocytosis is endocytosis of liquid matter.

Figure 4.22 Endocytosis

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 Figure 4.23 Exocytosis

b: Courtesy Dr. Birgit Satir, Albert Einstein College of Medicine

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 4.13 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis (Figure 4.24)

In receptor-mediated endocytosis, molecules to be

transported into the cell first bind to specific receptors in the
plasma membrane before entering the cell.

©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

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 4.14 Active Transport

Active transport

• Requires energy-Utilizes protein channels that open only

when energy is supplied

• Energy is used to pump substances against or up their

concentration gradients

• Allows cells to maintain high or low concentration of

certain molecules
• Recall that diffusion always ends in equilibrium.

Most of the active transport in cells is carried out by the

sodium-potassium pump.

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 4.14 Sodium-Potassium pump

Sodium-potassium pump

• Uses energy, in the form of ATP, to pump three Na out of

the cell and to pump two K+ into the cell

• Nearly 1/3 of the energy expended by the body’s cells is

given over to driving these pumps.

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 Key Biological Process: Sodium-Potassium Pump

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 4.14 Coupled Transport

The cell membrane has many facilitated diffusion channels

for Na+ but it is only transported if partnered with another
substance.

• This is called coupled transport.

The concentration gradient favoring the entry of Na+ into the

cell is so strong that a coupled substance will be transported
even if it is against the concentration gradient.

• Coupled transport is a common way for cells to

accumulate sugars and amino acids.

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 Figure 3.11 Secondary active transport is driven by the concentration gradient created by primary active Slide 1
transport.

Extracellular fluid Glucose

Na+-glucose
Na+-glucose
symport transporter
symport
releases glucose
transporter
into the cytoplasm
loads glucose
from extracellular
Na+-K+
fluid
pump

Cytoplasm

1 Primary active transport 2 Secondary active transport

The ATP-driven Na+-K+ pump As Na+ diffuses back across the membrane
stores energy by creating a through a membrane cotransporter protein, it
steep concentration gradient drives glucose against its concentration gradient
for Na+ entry into the cell. into the cell.

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 Active Transport and Coupled Transport

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