Materials Used In

Electronics
Module 2

EDC - Electronic Devices and Circuits

Source: Electronic Devices by Floyd, T. 9th Edition

Module 2 – Materials Used In

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Introduction
 In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified
into three groups: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

 When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline material, they

arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.

 The atoms within the crystal structure are held together by

covalent bonds, which are created by the interaction of the
valence electrons of the atoms.

 Silicon is a crystalline material.

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Learning Objectives
 After completing this module, the learners
should be able to:
1. Discuss insulators, conductors, and semiconductors and
how they differ
 Define the core of an atom
 Describe the carbon atom
 Name two types each of semiconductors, conductors, and
insulators

2. Explain the band gap

 Define valence band and conduction band
 Compare a semiconductor atom to a conductor atom

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Learning Objectives (cont’d)

 After completing this module, the learners

should be able to:

3. Discuss silicon and gemanium atoms

4. Explain covalent bonds

 Define crystal

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Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

 All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms contribute to

the electrical properties of a material, including its ability to
conduct electrical current.

 For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an atom can

be represented by the valence shell and a core that consists of
all the inner shells and the nucleus.

 This concept is illustrated in Figure 1–6 for a carbon atom.

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Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors (con’td)

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Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors (con’td)

 Carbon is used in some types of electrical resistors.

 Notice that the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence
shell and two electrons in the inner shell.

 The nucleus consists of six protons and six neutrons, so the 6

indicates the positive charge of the six protons.

 The core has a net charge of 4 (6 for the nucleus and for the
two inner-shell electrons).

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Insulators

 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical

current under normal conditions.

 Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-

element materials and have very high resistivities.

 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore,

there are very few free electrons in an insulator.

 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and

quartz.

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Conductors

 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.

 Most metals are good conductors.

 The best conductors are single-element materials, such as

copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are
characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very
loosely bound to the atom.

 These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons.

 Therefore, in a conductive material the free electrons are

valence electrons.

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Semiconductors

 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors

and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.

 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good

conductor nor a good insulator.

 Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic

(As), astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te),
silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge).

 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium

phosphide, gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon
germanium are also commonly used.

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Semiconductors (con’td)

 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms

with four valence electrons.

 Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.

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Band Gap

 Recall that the valence shell of an atom represents a band of

energy levels and that the valence electrons are confined to
that band.

 When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can

leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.

 The difference in energy between the valence band and the

conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap.

 This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have

in order to jump from the valence band to the conduction band.

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Band Gap (cont’d)

 Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move

throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.

 Figure 1–7 shows energy diagrams for insulators,

semiconductors, and conductors.

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Band Gap (cont’d)

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Band Gap (cont’d)

 For insulators, the gap can be crossed only when breakdown

conditions occur—as when a very high voltage is applied across
the material.

 In semiconductors the band gap is smaller, allowing an electron

in the valence band to jump into the conduction band if it
absorbs a photon.

o The band gap depends on the semiconductor material.

 In conductors, the conduction band and valence band overlap,

so there is no gap.

o This means that electrons in the valence band move freely into
the conduction band, so there are always electrons available
as free electrons.

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Band Gap (cont’d)

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Band Gap (cont’d)

 For insulators, the gap can be crossed only when breakdown

conditions occur—as when a very high voltage is applied across
the material.

 In semiconductors the band gap is smaller, allowing an electron

in the valence band to jump into the conduction band if it
absorbs a photon.

o The band gap depends on the semiconductor material.

 In conductors, the conduction band and valence band overlap,

so there is no gap.

o This means that electrons in the valence band move freely into
the conduction band, so there are always electrons available
as free electrons.

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 Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom
to a Conductor Atom

 Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor.

 Bohr diagrams of the silicon atom and the copper atom are
shown in Figure 1–8.

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 Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom
to a Conductor Atom (con’td)

 The valence electron in the copper atom “feels” an attractive

force of 1 compared to a valence electron in the silicon atom
which “feels” an attractive force of 4.

 Therefore, there is more force trying to hold a valence electron

to the atom in silicon than in copper.

 The copper’s valence electron is in the fourth shell, which is a

greater distance from its nucleus than the silicon’s valence
electron in the third shell.

 Recall that electrons farthest from the nucleus have the most
energy.

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 Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom
to a Conductor Atom (con’td)

 The valence electron in copper has more energy than the

valence electron in silicon.

o This means that it is easier for valence electrons in copper

to acquire enough additional energy to escape from their
atoms and become free electrons than it is in silicon.

 In fact, large numbers of valence electrons in copper already

have sufficient energy to be free electrons at normal room
temperature.

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Silicon and Germanium
 The atomic structures of silicon and germanium are compared in
Figure 1–9.

 Silicon is used in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and

other semiconductor devices.

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Covalent Bonds
 Figure 1–10 shows how each silicon atom positions itself with
four adjacent silicon atoms to form a silicon crystal.

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Covalent Bonds (cont’d)

 Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal is shown in Figure

1–11.

 An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities.

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Mastery Exercises

1. What is the basic difference between conductors and insulators?

2. How do semiconductors differ from conductors and insulators?

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Mastery Exercises (cont’d)

3. How many valence electrons does a conductor such as copper

have?

4. How many valence electrons does a semiconductor have?

5. Name three of the best conductive materials.

6. What is the most widely used semiconductive material?

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Mastery Exercises (cont’d)

7. Why does a semiconductor have fewer free electrons than a

conductor?

8. How are covalent bonds formed?

9. What is meant by the term intrinsic?

10.What is a crystal?

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Mastery Exercises (cont’d)

6. What is a free electron?

7. Discuss the difference between positive and negative ionization.

8. Name two theories that distinguish the quantum model.

Module 1 - The Atom 27

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