Course –Computer Networks

Topic –Data Link Layer

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Link Layer Addressing (Courtesy)

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Link Layer Addressing
 In Figure 9.5, three links and two routers and only two hosts
are shown: Alice (source) and Bob (destination).
 For each host, have two addresses, the IP addresses (N)
and the link-layer addresses (L).
 A router has as many pairs of addresses as the number
of links the router is connected.
 There are three frames are shown, one in each link. Each
frame carries the same datagram with the same source and
destination IP addresses (N1 and N8), but the link-layer
addresses of the frame change from link to link.

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Link Layer Addressing
 In link 1, the link-layer addresses are L1 and L2. In link 2,
they are L4 and L5. In link 3, they are L7 and L8.
 IP addresses and the link-layer addresses are not in the
same order.
 IP addresses, the source address comes before the
destination address; for link-layer addresses, the
destination address comes before the source.
 The datagrams and frames are designed in that way.

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9.2.1 Three types of addresses
 Some link-layer protocols define three types of addresses:
• UNICAST,
• MULTICAST, AND
• BROADCAST.

 UNICAST ADDRESS
 Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address.
Unicasting means one-to-one communication. A frame with a unicast
address, destination is destined only for one entity in the link.
 MULTICAST ADDRESS
 Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting
means one-to-many communication. However, the jurisdiction is local
(inside the link).

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9.2.1 Three types of address
 BROADCAST ADDRESS
 Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address.
Broadcasting means one-to-all communication. A frame
with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in
the link

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Anytime a node has an IP datagram to send to another
node in a link, it has the IP address of the receiving node.
 The source host knows the IP address of the default router.
Each router except the last one in the path gets the IP
address of the next router by using its forwarding table.
 The last router knows the IP address of the destination
host. However, the IP address of the next node is not
helpful in moving a frame through a link; we need the link-
layer address of the next node.
 At this Juncture the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
becomes helpful.

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Link Layer Addressing (Courtesy)

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 The ARP protocol is one of the auxiliary protocols defined in
the network layer, as shown in Figure 9.6.
 ARP belongs to the network layer; it maps an IP address to
a logical-link address.
 ARP accepts an IP address from the IP protocol, maps the
address to the corresponding link-layer address, and passes
it to the data-link layer.

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) (Courtesy)

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 Error Detection and Correction
Introduction
Types of Errors
• Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject to
unpredictable changes because of interference. This
interference can change the shape of the signal.
• The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data
unit (such as a byte, character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0
or from 0 to 1.
• The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit
have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• Figure 10.1 shows the effect of a single-bit and a burst error on a
data unit
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Types of Errors (Courtesy)

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Types of errors
 A burst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error
because the duration of the noise signal is normally longer
than the duration of 1 bit, which means that when noise
affects data, it affects a set of bits.
 The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and
duration of noise.
 For example, if we are sending data at 1 kbps, a noise of
1/100 second can affect 10 bits; if we are sending data at 1
Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.

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10.1.2 Redundancy
 Redundancy is central concept detecting or correcting
errors.
 Extra bits with our data are sent to Detect or correct errors.
 Redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by
the receiver.
 These bits facilitate the receiver to detect or correct
corrupted bits

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Detection versus Correction
 The correction is more difficult than the detection.
 Error detection is find errors at receiving end.
 Yes or No.
 A single-bit error or burst error.
 In Error correction, we need to know the exact number of
bits that are corrupted and, more importantly, their location
in the message.
 The number of errors and the size of the message are
important.

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10.1.2 Redundancy
 If we need to correct a single error in an 8-bit data unit, we
need to consider eight possible error locations;
 If we need to correct two errors in a data unit of the same
size, we need to consider 28 (permutation of 8 by 2)
possibilities.
 You can imagine the receiver’s difficulty in finding 10 errors
in a data unit of 1000 bits.

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10.1.4 Coding Schemes
 Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes.
 The sender adds redundant bits through a process that
creates a relationship between the redundant bits and the
actual data bits.
 The receiver checks the relationships between the two sets of
bits to detect errors.
 The ratio of redundant bits to data bits and the robustness of
the process are important factors in any coding scheme.
 Coding schemes can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Block coding and
2. Convolution coding.

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10.2 BLOCK CODING
 In block coding, Message is divided into blocks of k bits,
called datawords.
 Then r redundant bits are added to each block to make the
length n = k + r.
 The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords. How the extra
r bits are chosen or calculated is something we will discuss
later.
 For the moment, it is important to know that we have a set of
datawords, each of size k, and a set of codewords, each of size
of n.
 With k bits, we can create a combination of 2k datawords;
n
with n bits, we can create a combination of 2 18
Thank You

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