• What is Microprocessor ?

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that contains the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.

A microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable logic device that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data according to those instructions, and provides results as output.
 The microprocessor is a semiconductor device
consisting of electronic logic circuits.
 It is capable of performing various computing
functions and making decisions to change the
sequence of program execution.
 The Microprocessor can broadly divided into three
parts :-
 Arithmetic / Logic Unit
1. The microprocessor where various computing
functions are performed on data.
2. The ALU Unit performs such arithmetic
operations as addition and subtraction and logic
operations such as AND,OR, and XOR etc.
 Registers
1. This consist of Various registers.
2. Registers are primarily used to store data
temporarily during the execution of program.
3. The registers are accessible to the user through
instructions.

 Control Unit
1. The control unit provides the necessary timing and
control signals to all the operations in the
microcomputers.
2. It controls the flow of data between the
microprocessor and memory and peripherals(I/O
devices)
 Memory
1. Memory stores Binary information such as
intructions and data, and provides the information
to the microprocessor whenever necessary.
2. To execute programs the microprocessors reads
intructions and data from memory and performs
computing operations in its ALU section.
3. Results are either transferred to the output section
for display or stored in memory for later use.
 Input / Output (I/O)
1. I/O devices are also known as Peripherals.
2. Input devices are keyboard switches an analog to
digital convertor.
3. These devices are used to transfer data from
outside world to microprocessor.
4. Output devices are LED’s (Light Emitting Diode),
Cathode ray tube(CRT) or video screen , printer,
plotter, magnetic tape or digital to analog
convertor
5. These devices transfer data from microprocessor
to the outside world.
 System Bus
1. It is a communication path between
microprocessor and peripherals.
2. It is a group of wires to carry bits.
 Primary function of the cpu of a
microcomputer:
1. To Fetch , Decode , and execute program instructions in
the proper order.
2. Transfer data to and from memory and to and from I/O
section.
3. Responds to external interrupts.
4. Provide overall timing and control signals for the entire
system.
5. R/W(the capability of a system, device, or component
to perform both reading and writing operations on
data.) of data memory so Bi- Directional bus is
required.
6. All processing and data flow is done in the system with
mpu chip.
 Block diagram of ALU
1. ALU is 8 bit unit.
2. It performs arithmetic , Logic, rotate operation.
3. It consist of binary adder to perform addition
and subtraction by 2’s compliment method.
In essence, the 2's complement method is
a way to represent negative numbers in binary
arithmetic. It involves inverting all the bits of a
binary number and then adding 1. This technique
simplifies the process of adding and subtracting
both positive and negative numbers within a
computer's binary system.
4. The result is typically stored in
Accumulator.
5. Accumulator , temporary register flag register is
closely associated with ALU.
6. The Temporary register is used to hold data to
the result of operations in Status register.
8. Adder perform arithmetic operation like addition,
subtraction, increment, decrement etc.
9. Shifter perform logical operation like rotate Left,
rotate right etc. Result is placed in accumulator.
10.Status register are set or Reset according to ALU
operation.
 Block Diagram consist of
following blocks :-
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
2. Several registers : Instruction
register, Accumulator, Status
register, Temporary register, Stack
pointer, Data address register.
3. Program counter.
4. Instruction Decoder.
5. Timing and control section.
6. Bus buffers and Latches.
7. Internal buses and control lines.
8. Several control inputs and outputs.
9. Interrupt control.
 Address Bus :-
1. The address bus is group of 16 lines generally
identified as A0 to A15.
2. The address bus is unidirectional
3. Bits flow in one direction- From microprocessing unit
(MPU) to peripheral devices.
4. The MPU uses the address bus to identify a
peripheral or memory location.
5. The address bus is used to carry 16 bits address.
 Data bus :-
1. The data bus is a group of 8 lines used for data flow.
2. These lines are bi-directional .
3. Data flows in both the directions between MPU and
memory and peripheral devices.
4. MPU uses the data bus for transferring data.
5. Eight lines carry 8 bit data.
6. The Microprocessors having 8 but data bus are
called 8 bit microprocessor.
 Data address Register :-
1. It is a two 8 bit registers that can be used
separately or as a combined pair.
2. They are labelled as H and I.
3. (H denotes High order byte and L denotes Low
order byte.)
4. They are general purpose registers.
5. Data can be stored in these registers.
6. When they are used in pair, 16 bit address can be
stored in these registers.
 Instruction Register
1. This is a 8 bit register.
2. The first byte (i.e 8 bits) of an instruction is stored in this
register.

 Instruction Decoder
1. This unit interprets the contents of instruction register.
2. It determines the exact steps to be followed in executing the
entire instruction and directs the control section accordingly.

 Arithmetic and Logic unit

1. This unit performs arithmetic and logic operations
2. This unit also performs rotate operation
3. The operations in this unit affects the status register.
4. The results from ALU are placed in accumulator.
 Accumulator
1. It is a 8 bit register.
2. Many times it is treated as a part of ALU.
3. This register is used to store 8-bit data.
4. Arithmetic and logic operations, the results are
stored in accumulator.

 Status register
1. Status register consist of flipflops that are set or
reset.
2. Status register is also called as flags.
3. The generic MPU has two flags: zero and carry flags.
 Program Counter
1. Program counter is also a 16 bit register.
2. It contains the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
3. It can be incremented or reset by the control section.
4. The contents of program counter can be modified by
transfer instructions.

 Stack Pointer
1. Stack Pointer is also a 16 bit register.
2. It consist of address of memory location called stack.
3. Stack is a set of memory locations.
4. R\W memory specified by programmer used for temporary
storage.
 Timing and Control Unit
1. The Timing and Control Unit (TCU) is the brain of a
microprocessor, responsible for orchestrating all operations.
2. It generates precise timing signals to synchronize components,
decodes instructions, and generates control signals to activate
different parts of the processor based on the instruction.

 Control Inputs and Outputs

1. Reset and interrupt request (INTR) are control inputs for generic
microprocessors.
2. When reset is activated, all internal operations are suspended
and the program counter is cleared (ie it holds 0000H).
3. Now the program execution can again begin at zero memory
address.
4. By activating INTR, the microprocessor can be interrupted from
the normal exection of instructions and asked to executed some
other instructions.
5. The microprocessor resumes its operations after
completion of other instructions, called service routine.
6. The control outputs are write , read and clock lines.
7. The clock circuit generates clock signal for internal
use.
8. The signal is also made available at output on clock
line.
9. The is used to synchronize actions in the entire
systems.
10.The control signal Read(RD) enables the input buffer
and data in the data lines are written in memory or I/O
location.
11.RD and WR are active low control signals.
 Bus Buffers and Latches
1. A Latch is a flip flop.
2. It is used to store one bit of information.
3. To avoid unintentional change in the input and control the availability
of Output, we can use tri state buffers along with latches.
4. Tri state buffers -(a type of digital buffer that has three stable states:
a high output state, a low output state, and a high-impedance state.)
5. We can write into latch by enabling buffer.