INTRODUCTION

TO STATISTICS
Jovic G. Rullepa
 Statistics
Is the science of conducting studies to collect,
organize, summarize, analyze and draw
conclusions from data.
It normally involves the formulation of forecasts
or predictions about larger groups based on the
data collected from small groups.
The science that deals with the collection,
tabulation/presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical or quantitative data.
It is a systematic way of collecting, organizing,
summarizing, analyzing and interpreting data.
• Collection of data – refers to the process of
obtaining numerical measurements.
• Organization of data – refers to the tabulation or
presentation of data using tables, graphs and/or
charts so that logical and statistical conclusions
can be derived from the collected measurements.
• Summary of data – contains the summed up and
concise information of the data collected and
organized.
• Analysis of data – pertains to the process of
extracting from the given data relevant information
from which numerical description can be
formulated.
• Interpretation of data – refers to the tasks of
drawing conclusions from the analyzed data.
 Uses of Statistics:
• Statistics helps in providing a better understanding and
exact description of a phenomenon of nature.
• Statistics helps in proper and efficient planning of a
statistical inquiry in any field of study.
• Statistics helps in collecting an appropriate quantitative
data.
• Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a suitable
tabular, diagrammatic and graphic form for an easy and
clear comprehension of the data.
• Statistics helps in understanding the nature and pattern
of variability of a phenomenon through quantitative
observations.
• Statistics helps in drawing valid inference, along with a
measure of their reliability about the population
parameters from the sample data.
Population vs. Sample
Population
• the totality of actual conceivable objects of a certain
class under consideration. It can be finite or infinite.
• the totality of objects, individuals or reactions that can
be described as having unique combination of
qualities.
• consists of all objects (human or otherwise) that are
being studied.

Sample
• is a group of subjects selected from a population.
• representative part of the population.
• a finite number of objects or persons selected from the
population.
Sample
Parameter vs. Statistic

Parameter
• a numerical value or function, like mean or
standard deviation, used to describe a
population.
• piece of information derived from a population.

Statistic
• a numerical value or function, like mean or
standard deviation, used to describe a sample.
• piece of information derived from a sample.
Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
– is concerned with gathering, classification and
presentation of data and summarizing of values to
describe group characteristics of data.
Examples: Measures of Central Tendency, Measures
of Variability, Skewness and Kurtosis

Inferential Statistics
– is concerned with the analysis of a subset of
data leading to predictions or inferences about the
entire set of data.
Examples: t – test, Analysis of Variance
 Descriptive Statistics

– Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of

data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a
meaningful way.
– Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make
conclusions beyond the data we have analyzed or reach
conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have
made. They are simply a way to describe our data.
– When we use descriptive statistics it is useful to
summarize our group of data using a combination of
tabulated description (i.e., tables), graphical description
(i.e., graphs and charts) and statistical commentary (i.e.,
a discussion of the results).
 Sample Problems for Descriptive
Statistics Application
• What is the monthly allowance of all the
students of ABC University?
• What are the political views of the youth
in the urban areas with respect to
inflation rate in Southeast Asia?
• What are the possible risks encountered
in purchasing a life insurance as
perceived by policy holders?
 Inferential Statistics
• With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach
conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data
alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to
try to infer from the sample data what the
population might think. Or, we use inferential
statistics to make judgments of the probability that
an observed difference between groups is a
dependable one or one that might have happened
by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential
statistics to make inferences from our data to more
general conditions; we use descriptive statistics
simply to describe what's going on in our data.
 Sample Problems for Inferential
Statistics Application
• Is there a significant difference between the
performance of U.E. graduates in the October
CPA board examination and May CPA board
examination?
• Is there a significant difference in the
performance of students when classified
according sex, year level, and socio-
economic status?
• Is there a significant relationship between the
mathematics and competency levels of first
year students of a University?
THE statistical variables
The Statistical Variable
Variable
• is any quantity, measure or characteristics which
may possess different numerical values or
categories.
• a characteristics or property whereby the members
of the group or set vary or differ from one another.
• it is a characteristic that has two or more mutually
exclusive values or properties.

Constant
• is a property whereby the members of the group
do not differ from one another.
Kinds of Statistical Variable
Quantitative Variables
• they are variables that differ in quantity. They
are numerical and can be ordered or ranked.
Examples: age, scores, heights and body temperature

Qualitative Variables
• they are variables that differ in quality. They are
variables that can be placed into distinct
categories, according to some characteristic or
attribute.
• Examples: gender, religious preference and geographic
locations
Variables according to functional relationship

Dependent Variables
• they are criterion variable
• a factor, property, characteristics or attribute that is
measured and made the object of analysis.
• it is the consequent, effect, criterion, response or
output that is analyzed and treated statistically during
investigation for the purpose of the study.

Independent Variables
• a factor, property, attribute, characteristic or approach
that is introduced, manipulated or treated to determine
if it influenced or caused change on the dependent
variable.
Variables according to Continuity of values.

Continuous Variables / Non-Discrete

• a variable which can theoretically assume any value
between two given values or specified range.
• can assume infinite number of values between any two
specific values.
• they are obtained by measuring.
• they often include fractions and decimals.
Examples: temperature, weight, height, length and width

Discrete Variables
• a characteristic which can only assume designated values.
• they can answer the question “how many” and always
expressed in whole numbers.
• assume values that can be counted.
Examples: size of family, number of buildings, etc.
Variables according to Level of Measurement.

Nominal Variable
• it classifies items or individuals into two or more
categories. Numerals are assigned to label object or
person but these numbers cannot be ordered or added.
• it classifies data into mutually exclusive categories in
which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
• the numbers or symbols used to assign to each
category of a variable merely identify the class. They do
not indicate anything other than that they are different.
• the measure of central tendency applicable for this level
of measurement is mode.

• Examples: sex, marital status, political party.

Variables according to Level of Measurement.

Ordinal Variable
• classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however,
precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
• a property whereby the members of the group are ranked.
• specifies the relative position of items or individuals with
respect to a given characteristics with no indication as to the
distance between positions.
• the basic requirement is that one must be able to determine
whether an item has more, the same, or less of the attribute
being considered than the other items.
• the measures of central tendency applicable for this level of
measurement are median and mode.

• Examples: arrangements of floats in the parade, ratings

obtained during evaluation, students rank in the section list
Variables according to Level of Measurement.

Interval Variable
• it ranks the data and there is a precise differences
between
• units of measure; however there is no meaningful zero.
• a property defined by an operation which pertains
making of statements of equality of intervals rather than
just statements of sameness or difference and greater
than or less than.
• it does not have a ”true” zero point; although 0 maybe
arbitrarily assigned.
• the measures of central tendency applicable for this
level of measurement are mean, median and mode.
• Examples: psychological tests, IQ, EQ, temperature
Variables according to Level of Measurement.

Ratio Variable
• it possesses all the characteristic of the of the other
three variables plus there exist a true zero for this
measure.
• a property whereby an operation which permits making
of statements of equality of ratios in addition of
statements of sameness or difference, greater than or
less than and equality or inequality of differences.
• numbers on a ratio scale indicate the actual amounts of
the characteristic being measured.
• this is the only scale that has an absolute or natural
zero, the point of origin being a fixed one.
• Examples: number of phone call received, height, weight, area