Group

Set of elements (G) Operations (*)

• Set of Numbers • +, -, x, ÷
• Set of Functions • Compositions
• Set of Matrices • Other relations…,
• Set of Polynomials
• Set of Human beings
 Introduction to groups
 A Group (G) is a set with a binary (*)
operation which obeys the following four
axioms:

 Closure: a*bG,  a ,b G

 Associatively: a*(b*c) =(a*b)*c, a ,b, c G

 Identity: a*e = e* a = a,  a G

 Inverse: a*a-1 = a-1*a = e,  a G.

 Closure – If two
Associativity – The
elements are
order in which the
members of the
operation is carried
group (G), then any
out doesn’t matter.
combination of them
For every g1,g2,g3 Є
must also be a
member of the G, we have
group. g1º (g2º g3)=(g1º g2)º
For every g1,g2 Є G, g3
then g1º g2 Є G

Group

Inverse – Every
Identity – There
member of the
must exist an
group must have an
element e in the
inverse. For every g
group such that for
Є G, there is an
every g Є G, we
element g-1 Є G such
have
that
e º g = g ºe = g
g º g-1 = g-1º g = e
 Group (G, *)

 Closure: Binary relation

Semi Group
 Associatively:

Monoid
 Identity:

Group
 Inverse:
 Examples of Groups
• (Z, +), (R, +)

• (Zn, +n)

• Mmxn: Set of mxn matrices. (Mmxn, +)

• Pn(x): Set of all polynomials of order less than or

equal to n. (Pn(x), +)

• G: Set of all non-singular nxn matrices. (G, x)

• F(x): Set of all functions of x. (F(x), +)

 Groups-Verifications

•
Rings and Fields
Ring
• A ring <R,+,*> is a non-empty set R
together with two operations + and *,
called addition and multiplication, such
that
• <R,+> is an abelian group
• Multiplication is closed.
• Multiplication is associative
• Multiplication distributes over addition
a.(b+c) = a.b + a.c;
(b+c).a = b.a + c.a
Examples:
• (Z, +, x) is a ring
• (2Z, +, x) is a subring of (Z, +, x)
• Set of rational numbers with + and x
• (Zn , +, x) is a ring
• (Mnn, +, x) is a ring
• Set of all continuous real valued functions of reals
with the two operations
(f+g)(a)=f(a)+g(a) & (fg)(a)=f(a)g(a) is a ring.
Commutative Ring: a.b = b.a for all a
and b in R.

Ring with unit element: There is an

element 1 in R such that a.1 = 1.a = a
for all a in R.
 Ring

Unit Ring
(mult. identity)
Commutative
Ring
(mult. is commutative)
Division Ring
(mult. identity,
mult. inverse)

Field
(mult. identity,
mult. inverse,
mult. is commutative)
 Fields
Definition:
A field F is a set together with two binary
operations + and ×, satisfying the
following properties:
1. (F,+) is a commutative group

2. (F-{0},×) is a commutative group

3. The distributive law holds in F:

(a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c)
Examples:
Is (Z, +, *) a field?
No. (Z,*) not a group

How about (R, +, *)?

Yes.

How about (Zn, +n, *n)?

Only when n is prime.
(Zn, *n) is a group
only for prime n.
 Review - Rings +,·,0, 1 and-a
are only notations!

Def (ring): A set F with two binary

operations + (addition) and · (multiplication)
is called a commutative ring with identity if

1  a,bF, a+bF 6  a,bF, a·bF

2  a,b,cF, (a+b)+c=a+ 7  a,b,cF,
(b+c) (a·b)·c=a·(b·c)
3  a,bF, a+b=b+a 8  a,bF, a·b=b·a
4  0F,  aF, a+0=a 9  1F,  aF, a·1=a
5  aF,  -aF, a+(-a)=0 10 
a,b,cF,a·(b+c)=a·b+a
·c
 +,·,0, 1,-a
Review - Fields and a-1 are
only notations!

Def (field): A set F with two binary

operations + (addition) and · (multiplication)
is called a field if

1  a,bF, a+bF 6  a,bF, a·bF

2  a,b,cF, (a+b)+c=a+ 7  a,b,cF,
(b+c) (a·b)·c=a·(b·c)
3  a,bF, a+b=b+a 8  a,bF, a·b=b·a
4  0F,  aF, a+0=a 9  1F,  aF, a·1=a
10 
5  aF,  -aF, a+(-a)=0
a,b,cF,a·(b+c)=a·b+a
11  a0F, ·ca-1F, a·a-
Review - Fields
A field is a commutative ring with identity where
each non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse
 a0F,  a-1F, a·a-1=1

Equivalently, (F,+) is a commutative (additive) group,

and (F \ {0}, ·) is a commutative (multiplicative)
group.
 Polynomials over Fields

Let f(x)= an·xn + an-1·xn-1 + an-2·xn-2 + … + a1·x + a0

be a polynomial of degree n in one variable x over a field
F (namely an, an-1,…, a1, a0  F).

Theorem: The equation f(x)=0 has at most n solutions

in F.

Remark: The theorem does not hold over rings with

identity.
For example, in Z24 the equation 6·x = 0
has six solutions (0,4,8,12,16,20).
 Vector Spaces

1 Vectors in Rn
2 Vector Spaces
3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
4 Spanning Sets and Linear Independence
5 Basis and Dimension
 n
Vectors inn-tuple
An ordered

R :
a sequence of n real numbers ( x1, x2, , xn )
 Rn-space :
the set of all ordered n-tuples

n=1 R1-space = set of all real numbers

1
(R -space can be represented geometrically by the
x-axis)
n=2 R -space = set of all ordered pair of real numbers ( x1 , x2 )
2

(R2-space can be represented geometrically by the

xy-plane)
n=3 R3-space = set of all ordered triple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
(R3-space can be represented geometrically by the
xyz-space)
n=4 R -space = set of all ordered quadruple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
4
• Notes:
(1) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,  , xn ) can be viewed as a point in Rn
with the xi’s as its coordinates
(2) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,  , xn ) also can be viewed as a vector
x ( x1 , x2 , , xn )
in Rn with the xi’s as its components
 Ex:

x1 , x2  x1 , x2 
or

0,0
a point a vector
 u u1 , u2 , , un , v v1 , v2 , , vn  (two vectors in Rn)
 Equality:
u v if and only if u1 v1 , u2 v2 ,  , un vn

 Vector addition (the sum of u and v):

u  v u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,  , un  vn 

 Scalar multiplication (the scalar multiple of u by c):

cu cu1 , cu 2 ,  , cu n 

 Notes:
The sum of two vectors and the scalar multiple of a vector
in Rn are called the standard operations in Rn
 Difference between u and v:
u  v u  ( 1) v (u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 ,..., un  vn )

 Zero vector :
0 (0, 0, ..., 0)
•Theorem 1: Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication
Let u, v, and w be vectors in Rn, and let c and d be scalars

(1) u+v is a vector in Rn (closure under vector addition)

(2) u+v = v+u (commutative property of vector addition)
(3) (u+v)+w = u+(v+w) (associative property of vector addition)
(4) u+0 = u (additive identity property)
(5) u+(–u) = 0 (additive inverse property)
(6) cu is a vector in Rn (closure under scalar multiplication)
(7) c(u+v) = cu+cv (distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector
addition)
(8) (c+d)u = cu+du (distributive property of scalar multiplication over real-
number addition)
(9) c(du) = (cd)u (associative property of multiplication)
(10) 1(u) = u (multiplicative identity property)
 Notes:
A vector u (u1 , u 2 ,  , u n ) in R n can be viewed as:

a 1×n row matrix (row vector): u [u1 u2  un ]

or  u1 
u 
a n×1 column matrix (column vector): u  
2

 
 
 un 
 Vector addition Scalar multiplication
u  v (u1 , u2 ,  , un )  (v1 , v2 ,  , vn ) cu c(u1 , u 2 ,  , u n )
(u1  v1 , u2  v2 ,  , un  vn ) (cu1 , cu2 ,  , cu n )

Treated as 1×n row matrix

u  v [u1 u2  un ]  [v1 v2  vn ] cu c[u1 u2  un ]
[u1  v1 u2  v2  un  vn ] [cu1 cu2  cun ]

Treated as n×1 column matrix

 u1   v1   u1  v1   u1   cu1 
u  v  u  v   u   cu 
u  v   2    2   2 2  cu c  2   2 
            
         
 u n   vn   u n  vn   un   cun 
2 Vector Spaces
• Vector spaces :
Let V be a set on which two operations (vector addition and
scalar multiplication) are defined. If the following ten axioms
are satisfied for every u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real
number) c and d, then V is called a vector space

Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v=v+u
(3) u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0=u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by –u
such that u+(–u)=0
 Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is in V
(7) c(u  v ) cu  cv
(8) (c  d )u cu  du
(9) c(du) (cd )u
(10) 1(u) u

※ Any set V that satisfies these ten properties (or axioms) is called a vector
space, and the objects in the set are called vectors
n
※ Thus, we can conclude that R is of course a vector space