OPERATING

SYSTEM
DR. F. O. BOATENG
Contents 1-2

1. Introduction
2. History of Operating System
3. Operating System Architecture
4. Coordinating the Machine’s
Activities and Handling
Competition among Processes
Introduction 3
 An Operating System is a program which
controls the execution of all other programs
(applications).
 Itacts as an intermediary between the
user(s) and the computer.
 The Operating System (OS):
• controls all execution.
• multiplexes resources between
applications.
• abstracts away from complexity.
History of Operating 4
System
The First Generation (1940’s to early 1950’s)
 When electronic computers where first introduced
in the 1940's they were created without any
operating systems.
 All programming was done in absolute machine
language, often by wiring up plugboards to control
the machine's basic functions.
 During this generation computers were generally
used to solve simple math calculations, operating
systems were not necessarily needed.
History of Operating 5
System
The Second Generation (1955-1965)
 Thefirst operating system was introduced in the
early 1950's, it was called GMOS and was created
by General Motors for IBM's machine the 701.
 Operating systems in the 1950's were called
single-stream batch processing systems because
the data was submitted in groups.
 Thesenew machines were called mainframes, and
they were used by professional operators in large
computer rooms.
 Sincethere was such as high price tag on these
machines, only government agencies or large
corporations were able to afford them.
History of Operating 6

System
The Third Generation (1965-1980)
By the late 1960's operating systems designers
were able to develop the system of
multiprogramming in which a computer program
will be able to perform multiple jobs at the same
time.
The introduction of multiprogramming was a major
part in the development of operating systems
because it allowed a CPU to be busy nearly 100
percent of the time that it was in operation.
A major development in this generation was the
growth of minicomputers.
History of Operating 7
The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)
System
The fourth generation of operating systems saw
the creation of personal computers which cost a
very small fraction of what minicomputers cost.
One of the major factors in the creation of
personal computing was the birth of Microsoft
and the Windows operating system.
The windows Operating System was created in
1975 when Paul Allen and Bill Gates had a vision
to take personal computing to the next level.
They introduced the MS-DOS in 1981 although it
was effective it created much difficulty for
people who tried to understand its cryptic
History of Operating 8
System
 Windows went on to become the largest
operating system used in technology today with
releases of: Windows 95, Windows 98, Window
2000, Window Me, Windows XP, Windows XP
Professional, Window Vista, Windows7, Window 8,
Window 8.1 and their newest operating system
Windows 10.
 Along with Microsoft, Apple is the other major
operating system created in the 1980's. Steve
Jobs, co founder of Apple, created the Apple
Macintosh which was a huge success due to the
fact that it was so user friendly.
 Windows development throughout the later years
History of Operating 9
System
 Today all of our electronic devices run on
operating systems, from our computers and
smartphones, to ATM machines and motor
vehicles.
 As technology advances, so do operating systems.
Operating System 1
0
Architecture
The core software components of an operating
system are collectively known as the kernel.
The kernel has unrestricted access to all of the
resources on the system.
There are 3 main types Operating System (OS)
architectures;
• The monolithic OS architecture
• The layered OS architecture
• The microkernel OS architecture
Operating System 1
1
Architecture
Monolithic OS Architecture
In early monolithic systems, each component of
the operating system was contained within the
kernel, could communicate directly with any
other component, and had unrestricted system
access.
While this made the operating system very
efficient, it also meant that errors were more
difficult to isolate, and there was a high risk of
damage due to erroneous or malicious code.
Operating System 1
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Architecture
A Monolithic OS architecture
Operating System 1
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Architecture
Layered OS Architecture
In this kind of architecture, each layer
communicates only with the layers immediately
above and below it, and lower-level layers
provide services to higher-level ones using an
interface that hides their implementation.
The modularity of layered operating systems
allows the implementation of each layer to be
modified without requiring any modification to
adjacent layers.
Operating System 1
4
Architecture
Although this modular approach imposes
structure and consistency on the operating
system, simplifying debugging and
modification, a service request from a user
process may pass through many layers of
system software before it is serviced and
performance compares unfavourably to that of
a monolithic kernel.
Also, because all layers still have unrestricted
access to the system, the kernel is still
susceptible to errant or malicious code.
Many of today’s operating systems, including
Microsoft Windows and Linux, implement some
level of layering.
Operating System 1
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Architecture
A Layered OS architecture
Operating System 1
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Architecture
Microkernel OS Architecture
Itincludes only a very small number of services
within the kernel in an attempt to keep it small
and scalable.
The services typically include low-level memory
management, inter-process communication and
basic process synchronisation to enable
processes to cooperate.
Operating system components outside the kernel
can fail without causing the operating system to
fall over.
The downside is an increased level of inter-
module communication which can degrade
system performance.
Operating System 1
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Architecture
A Microkernel OS architecture
Coordinating the Machine’s
1
Activities and Handling 8
Competition among Processes
An important task of an operating system is the
allocation of the machine's resources to the competing
processes in the system.
Resources include the machine's peripheral devices as
well as features within the machine itself.
• The file manager allocates access to files as well
and allocates mass storages pace for the
construction of new files;
• The memory manager allocates memory space;
• The scheduler allocates space in the process
table;
• The dispatcher allocates time slices
Coordinating the Machine’s
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Activities and Handling 9
Competition among Processes
Let us consider a time-sharing operating system
controlling the activities of a computer with a single
printer.
• If a process needs to print its results, it must
request that the operating system gives it
access to the printer's device driver.
• At this point, the operating system must decide
whether to grant this request, depending on
whether the printer is already being used by
another process.
• If it is not, the operating system should grant
the request and allow the process to continue.
Coordinating the Machine’s
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Activities and Handling 0
Competition among Processes
• Otherwise, the operating system should deny
the request and perhaps classify the process
as a waiting process until the printer
becomes available.
• After all, if two processes were given
simultaneous access to the computer's
printer, the results would be worthless to
both.
Coordinating the Machine’s
2
Activities and Handling 1
Competition among Processes
Semaphore
It is used to control access to a common
resource by multiple processes and avoid
critical section problems in a concurrent
system such as a multitasking operating
system.
In fact, semaphores are used in software
systems in much the same way as they are in
railway systems.
Coordinating the Machine’s
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Activities and Handling 2
Competition among Processes
Critical Region
Its is a sequence of instructions that should be
executed by only one process at a time.

Mutual Exclusion
The requirement that only one process at a
time be allowed to execute a critical region
Coordinating the Machine’s
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Activities and Handling 3
Competition among Processes
Deadlock
It is the condition in which two or more processes
are blocked from progressing because each is
waiting for a resource that is allocated to another.
For example, one process may have access to the
computer's printer but be waiting for access to the
computer's CD player, while another process has
access to the CD player but is waiting for the
printer.
Such conditions, as in other settings can severely
degrade a system's performance.
Coordinating the Machine’s
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Activities and Handling 4
Competition among Processes
Avoiding Deadlock
One, requires that each process requests all its
resources at one time.
Another, perhaps more imaginative technique
attacks the first condition, not by removing the
competition directly but by converting non
shareable resources into shareable ones.
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