Research and Study Skills for University Study

Topic 8:
The Nature and Process of Research - 1

© NCC Education Limited

 The Nature and Process of Research (I)
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Scope and Coverage

This topic will cover:
• Understanding research – types, benefits, approaches
• Research requirements and using research criteria -
good’ research, ‘messiness’ of research
• Planning a research project
• Formulating research questions
• Reviewing the literature
• Research Design and Methods
• Ethics in research
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Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic students will be able
to:
• Explain the role of theory, values, and ethical and
political considerations in research.
• Develop a strategy for a research project/report.
• Describe and apply the essential elements of
research: literature review, devising research
questions, research methods, ethics, data
collection and analysis, and writing up findings.
• Discuss the difficulties and obstacles in research.
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The Unit Roadmap

• Getting Ready for Study • Academic Writing
• Learning and Skills Audit • The Nature and Process
• Gathering Information – of Research – 1
Sources and Reading • The Nature and Process
• Gathering Information – of Research – 2
Lectures and Tutorials • Developing a Presentation
• Using Critical Thinking and • Examinations and
Reasoning Revision
• Planning for an assignment • Module Summary and
Assignment
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Outlines are your Recipe!

• What do you have to do?
• What do you want to say?
Plannin • Research
g • Outline structure

• Communicating your
ideas
Writing • Completing a first draft
• Review, revise, check
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The Nature of Research

What is Research?
The ability to answer a question or address a concern
facing us in a particular area of interest.
(Based on Fraenkel et al, 2012)

More formally…
A systematic process of discovery and inquiry.
It involves finding, documenting, analysing, and
evaluating critical information, as well as collating,
analysing and evaluating data.
(University of Kent, 2023)
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Research in Higher Education

In HE ‘research’ associated with finding out
‘new knowledge’ - pushing the frontiers of
understanding.

It is carried out:
• To increase and contribute new knowledge,
• To evaluate bodies of knowledge, viewpoints, and
the validity of a hypothesis or theories,
• To evaluate and develop practices
• To generate questions for further inquiries
(University of Kent, 2023)
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How Do We Obtain Information?

People do the following to obtain
information:
• Consult experts
• Review books and articles
• Question/observe colleagues
• Rely on past experience
• Use intuition
Using scientific research provides
another way to obtain reliable and
accurate information.
Scientific method involves
Testing ideas publicly by formulating a
hypothesis within a rigorous format. Fraenkel et al. (2012)
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Types of Research
Research is the formal, systematic application
of scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most
often the Scientific Method to the study of
problems.
Research types and approaches include:

Experimental research
Correlational research
Survey research
Action research
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Critiques of Research
Critics raise philosophical, linguistic, ethical,
and political concerns such as:
• Question of Reality
• Question of Communication
• Question of Values
• Question of Unstated
Assumptions
• Question of Societal
Consequences
Fraenkel et al. (2012)
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Criteria of ‘Good Research’ (Fox, 1958)

In research that merits confidence…

• Purpose of the research, or problem, should be as clearly defined
as possible.
• Research procedures should be described so another researcher
could repeat the research.
• Design should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
• Flaws in the procedural design reported frankly and their likely
effect upon the findings.
• Data Analysis is adequate to reveal its significance; the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate.
• Confidence in the experience, skills, and integrity of the researcher.
 The Nature and Process of Research (I)

Basic Principles of Research Topic 8 - 8.12

Design
Four main, distinct features of research design:
• Ontology: How the researcher views the world and their
assumptions about the nature of the world and reality.
• Epistemology: Assumptions that you make about the best
way of investigating the world and about reality.
• Methodology: The way you group together research
techniques to make a coherent picture.
• Methods and techniques: What you actually do to collect
data and carry out your investigations
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Main Schools of Ontology

…Or how we construct reality!
Ontology Realism Internal Realism Relativism Nominalism

The world is ‘real’, Scientific laws Reality is entirely

The world is real,
and science are basically created by
but it is almost
Summary proceeds by created by people, and
impossible to
examining and people to fit their there is no
examine it directly
observing it view of reality external ‘truth’

There is a single Truth exists, but is There are many

Truth There is no truth
truth obscure truths

Facts exist, and can Facts are concrete, Facts depend on

Facts are all
Facts be revealed through but cannot always the viewpoint of
human creations
experiments be revealed the observer

NB – None of these positions are absolutes, but

on a continuum - with overlaps between them.
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Epistemology
The way you choose to investigate the world

Two main schools are positivism and social constructionism:

• Positivists - The best way to investigate the world is through
objective methods, such as observations.
Positivism fits within a realist ontology.

• Social constructionists - Reality does not exist by itself; it is

constructed and given meaning by people. Focus is on
feelings, beliefs and thoughts, and how people communicate
these.
Social constructionism fits better with a relativist ontology.
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Methodology
• Epistemology and ontology will have implications for your
methodology
• Realists tend to have positivist approach
 tend to gather quantitative sources of data
• Relativists tend to have a social constructionist approach
 tend to gather qualitative sources of data
• Remember these are not absolutes! More a continuum 
role for mixed methods and approaches
• Role of the researcher: internal/external; involved or
detached?
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Choosing Research Methods

Your approach may be influenced by your tutor’s or
supervisor’s views and your own experience and
preferences.
Whatever approach you choose, consider 5
questions:
• What is the unit of analysis?
• Are you relying on universal theory or local knowledge?
• Will theory or data come first?
• Will your study be cross-sectional or longitudinal?
• Will you verify or falsify a theory?
• Will your approach be based on quantitative or qualitative
research?
NB - There is no right or wrong answer to choosing your research
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Research Methods
Research methods are split broadly into:
Primary Research - Involves collecting original data specific to a
particular research project.
Secondary Research- Involves the summary/synthesis of data and
literature organised and published by others. (Gratton &
Jones, 2010)
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Research: Managing the Process

Based on Cottrell (2019), OU (2017)

• Organising and planning

• Prepare the ground
Preparation • Decide topic, title & research strategy
• Draw up & agree your proposal

• Undertake a literature review

Research • Implement your research design
• Present and discuss results
Analysis • Discuss your findings and draw conclusions
• Rework your drafts
Writing Up • Write the abstract and references

Fine Tuning • Prepare for submission

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Organising and Planning

Organising and planning involves managing
the project …
• Manage the scale - Consider the requirements of
the word limit, deadline and assignment brief.
• Manage the focus
• Manage your time
• Manage your supervision - Tutors and supervisors
are there to provide guidance., so plan how to make
best use of that time.
• Draw on your skills
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Prepare the Ground

The work necessary to help select a topic

• Survey the field for ideas and background reading.

• Brainstorm for potential topics.

• Check these for feasibility and consider ethical

implications (more later).

• Focus your reading on this narrowed list .

Decide topic, title and research
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strategy
The work necessary here is…
• Finalise the topic.
• Clarify exactly what you are setting out to
investigate and demonstrate.
• Specify your research question or title precisely.
• Write a project hypothesis/thesis statement as
required.
• Decide your research strategy and methodology.
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Deciding the Topic

How can you generate research ideas? Where should
you start?
• Take an overview of the area – reports, journal, books,
etc.
• Build on what has gone before
• Develop a long list of potential topics
• Small is beautiful
• Narrow your list
• Identify your niche
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From Topic to Research Question

Clearly define and delineate your research topic.
• The more clearly you do, the more confidence and clarity
you will have in what you are trying to achieve.
• If uncertain what you are re trying to achieve, how will
you monitor your progress and know you are on course?
• You might also formulate a provisional research question
i.e., the question your research will answer:

Research topic: Investigate ‘A’ and ‘B’ to see if/how

they interrelate.
Research Question: ‘To what extent is A caused by B?’
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Activity: Topic to Research Question

Discuss in small groups:
• Your (potential) topic area

• Your (potential) research topic

• Your (potential) research question

Help each other to clarify the choices at one or

all these areas 

(10 mins)
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Checkpoint Summary
• Research seeks toad to knowledge by a systematic
process of discovery and inquiry.
• Research has several types – Experimental,
Correlational, Survey, Action
• Four distinct features of research design: Ontology,
Epistemology, Methodology, Methods and
techniques
• Managing the research process involves
preparation, research, analysis, writing up, fine
tuning.
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Developing a Title/‘Question’
• The title addresses for research reports and may be
worded more like a statement than a question.
‘Using XYZ software to improve athletes’
performance’.
• A subtitle can provide greater specificity. E.g:

'The effects of local flooding on small

businesses: A comparative case study of
two engineering SMEs in Smalltown one
year after the 2012-13 floods'.
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Developing a Research ‘Question’

• Wording of a question can be central in defining the scope
and direction and methodology of the study.
• Questions or statements of purpose?
‘In what ways, and for what reasons, does the
internal perception of the organisational culture vary
in relation to the culture that the organisation
portrays in official documents?’
‘How are absenteeism levels linked to employees’
performance’
• Clearly defined and focused research questions take some
time!
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Elements in a Research ‘Question’

Research
questions can
contain
several
elements…
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What is a Research Hypothesis?

States what you expect will happen - or what
you are likely to find to be the case.
In your research. For example:
• That there is a link between two factors.
• How people will behave in certain circumstances.
• What the outcome would be if two substances combined.
• That x causes y.
A theoretical, logical assumption based on your knowledge of the subject.
Your research tests your hypothesis to see if it can be supported by the
evidence. Design your research so that you test your hypothesis objectively.
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The Nature of a Hypothesis

You can't 'prove' a hypothesis. You can:
– Disprove it - if your evidence doesn't support
it.
– Provide evidence to support it .
Your hypothesis provides a clear focus on what
exactly to read, research, measure and discuss.

You can refer back to it in sections of your report.

– Results section
– Discussion section
– Abstract
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Writing the Hypothesis

The hypothesis must be worded very clearly
and precisely. It usually states that something
will or will not happen.
“The research hypothesis was that adults
would show a preference for savoury food coloured blue
over savoury food coloured with food dyes simulating
natural colourings. The second hypothesis was that there
would be no significant difference in the preferences of
men and women.”
In the case of quantitative studies, a few
questions/hypotheses might be developed and
tested.
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Research Design
The way in which you will conduct your
research. This includes:
• Source materials or data you need.
• Exact methods for collecting these.
• If relevant, the number and type of people you want to
interview or to take part.
• What, exactly, you want participants to do.
• How you will design questions to achieve only the
exact data you need.
• Designing forms to record and collate data.
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Deciding on your Raw Material

The way in which you will conduct your research. This
includes:
• Most research projects use data that you have generated
or collected yourself – (observation, experiment,
questionnaires, etc.)
• Some subjects select texts, artefacts, parliamentary
papers, philosophical tracts, historical documents or
published data.
• Each subject has its own conventions about acceptable
research methods.
• Basic principles – being accurate, being objective and
avoiding distortion.
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Methods: Precision and Research

When designing your research strategy, you
need to think in very precise ways.
• Look for conditions, or variables, that may affect your
results in unintended ways or that leave it open to
doubt what might have given rise to your results.
• If there are flaws in your research design, your results
will not be valid. Keep returning to the question:
Will this method, or this wording, yield exactly what I need?
• Research useful methods - When conducting your
literature search.
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Collecting, Collating and Analysing Data

Plan to collect enough data for

convincing and reliable results.
• Collecting and analysing data
is time-consuming. How much
will be acceptable?
• Design process to collect
information in a way that helps
you collate it quickly.
• Organise it into charts or
tables so that you can interpret
it. Look for patterns and trends.
Make relevant comparisons. Cottrell, 2019
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Thinking about Data

The data collected by your research may be:
• Quantitative data is about quantities, i.e.
numbers
• Qualitative data is about the nature of the thing
investigated. Tends to be words rather than numbers
Your research method can only be established in the light
of a review of existing knowledge – your literature
review is essential

A mixed methods study involves both qualitative and

quantitative approaches.
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Deciding on your Raw Material

The way in which you will conduct your
research. This includes:
• Most research projects use data that you have generated
or collected yourself – (observation, experiment,
questionnaires etc.)
• Some subjects select texts, artefacts, parliamentary
papers, philosophical tracts, historical documents or
published data.
• Each subject has its own conventions about acceptable
research methods.
• Basic principles - being accurate, being objective and
avoiding distortion.
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What is a Literature Review?

“…an assessment of a body…of literature
that pertains to a specific question.”
Fraenkel et al, 2012)

A literature review
• Surveys scientific articles, books, journals,
dissertations and other sources…
• Relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or
theory…
• Provides a description, summary, and critical
evaluation of the work.
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Literature Review: Purpose

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A literature review may constitute an essential

chapter or may be a self-contained review of
writings on a subject. Its purpose is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to the
understanding of the subject.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others.
 Identify new ways to interpret and shed light on gaps in the
research.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory studies.
 Identify areas of prior research to prevent duplication of
effort.
 Place one's original work in the context of existing literature.
…..Also give researchers ideas about areas where more research needs to
be done. The “gaps” in the literature.
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Literature Review: Development

Development of the literature review requires
four stages:
• Problem formulation - which topic or field is being
examined and what are its component issues?
• Literature search - finding materials relevant to the
subject being explored
• Data evaluation - determining which literature
makes a significant contribution to the understanding
of the topic
• Analysis and interpretation - discussing the
findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.
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Conducting the Literature Review

Here are some key steps in conducting a
literature review:
• Define your topic. Do you have a central question to answer?
• Narrow down what you want to research.
• Divide your topic into key themes.
• Use your textbooks to identify key authors or theories.
• Do the textbooks suggest any further reading?
• Use the online library to locate academic opinion and theory.
• Organise your literature: store copies grouped into themes.
• Read the literature you have sourced.
• Fit the literature into the key themes you identified - if any
don't fit, or they don't seem important put them to one side.
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Working with Literature

Workingwith
Working with
Literature
Literature

Findit!
Find it! Manageit!
Manage it! Useit!
Use it! Reviewit!
Review it!

Knowingthe
Knowing the Reading
Reading Choosingyour
Choosing yourresearch
research Understandingthe
Understanding the
literaturetypes
literature types efficiently
efficiently topic
topic litlitreview’s
review’spurpose
purpose

Keepingtrack
Keeping track Ensuringadequate
Ensuring adequate
Usingavailable
Using availableresources
resources Developingyour
Developing yourquestion
question
of references
of references coverage
coverage

Honingyour
Honing your Arguingyour
Arguing your Writing
Writing
Writingrelevant
Writing relevantannotations
annotations
searchskills
search skills rationale
rationale purposefully
purposefully

Informingyour
Informing yourwork
workwith
with Workingon
Working on
theory
theory style and tone
style and tone

Designing
Designing
method
method Salama (2009)
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Assessing the Literature

In assessing each piece, consideration should
be given to:

• Provenance - What are the author's credentials? Are

arguments supported by evidence (e.g. primary material,
case studies, statistics, recent scientific findings)?
• Objectivity - Is the author's perspective even-handed? Is
contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information
ignored?
• Persuasiveness - Is the author's thesis convincing?
• Value - Does the work ultimately contribute in a significant
way to an understanding of the subject of my research?
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Activity: Ethics in Research

The meaning of ‘ethics’ and ‘ethical
behaviour’ is subjective and may be
controversial
Discuss the following questions in small
groups:
• What does ethics mean for you?
• Why is ethical behaviour important for you?
• Why should ethics matter in research?
(10 mins)
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Ethics in Research
Ethics concerns the science of morals and
rules of behaviour.
• Concerns the concept of right and wrong conduct in
all stages of doing research.
• May seem straightforward, in practice, you will realise
its complexity.
• Generally, HE institutions and professional bodies
have a list of principles or a code of ethics that
governs the research process.
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Consider Ethical Implications

In deciding on a project, consider how your
approach would be viewed on ethical
grounds. Ensure that…
• No one will be harmed.
• Legal requirements are met (data protection, child
protection, health and safety, etc.)
• You have gained the informed consent of
participants to use their data.
• Openness and integrity.
• Maintaining high research standards.
 The Nature and Process of Research (I)

Activity: Ethical Issues in your own

Topic 8 - 8.47

research
Now that we have considered ethical
implications that arise from research,
Discuss the following questions in pairs:
• What ethical issues arise from your proposed
research project?
• What actions will you take to handle them?
(10 mins)
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References and Appendices

Analyse and explain your findings. Some
questions to consider:
• Were they as you had expected?
• To what extent was the hypothesis supported?
• Did they support or challenge existing theories?
• Was your research method appropriate?
• Was there unexpected data that affected your
results?
• To what extent was your research validated by other
sources?
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Topic Summary
• Research seeks toad to knowledge by a systematic process
of discovery and inquiry.
• Research has several types – Experimental, Correlational,
Survey, Action.
• Four distinct features of research design: Ontology,
Epistemology, Methodology, Methods and techniques.
• Managing the research process involves preparation,
research, analysis, writing up, fine tuning.
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References
• Cottrell, S. (2019) The Study Skills Handbook, 5th Edition, Bloomsbury Academic
• Fox, J.H. (1958) Criteria of good research, Phi Delta Kappan, 39 (6), 284-286.
• Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education, 8th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill
• Gratton, C., & Jones, I. (2010). Research methods for sports studies (2nd ed.).
Taylor and Francis
https://repository.stkipgetsempena.ac.id/bitstream/575/1/Research_Methods_for_Sports_Studies.pdf
• Open Learn (2021) - Essay and report writing skills – The Open University
• Salama, R. (2009) Conducting Research – presentation, Suez Canal University,
Egypt
• University of Kent (2023) - Research projects & dissertations
https://www.kent.ac.uk/guides/research-projects-and-dissertations (Accessed –
25/10/23)
• University of Reading (2023)- Report Writing
https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/reports (Accessed – 25/10/23)
Topic 8 – The Nature and Process of
Research - 1

Any Questions?