Unit 4:Sensors & Control Systems

Dr. Ashish Pawar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT-WPU, Pune Jan 27, 2025 1

Content:
• Transducers and Sensors

• Sensors in Robotics

• Tactile Sensors

• Proximity Sensors,

• Optical position sensors

• Velocity sensors

• Force and torque sensors

• Miscellaneous Sensors

• Open Loop Control System, Close Loop Control System

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Need of Sensors in Robots
• The main objective of incorporating sensors in robotic system is to
enable robots to work in nonstructural and random environments.
• Sensors will make robots more intelligent. But the associated robotic
software must have the ability to receive data from the sensors and to
process the necessary real time information and commands needed for
the decision making.
What is the angle of my arm? Where am I? Will I hit anything?

internal information localization obstacle detection

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Need For Sensors
 Sensors are important in creating robots which are efficient in
their appointed purpose.
 The inclusion of sensors is imperative to their automation.
however, developers need to take care when choosing which
sensors to incorporate in the design.
 Sensor type, sensitivity, accuracy, and position are all
important factors for the success of the robot.
 Industrial manufacturing robots need sensors in order to allow
them to operate efficiently for pick and place of objects
without crushing or dropping them.
 They use torque sensors which monitor and control rotational forces.

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Need For Sensors
 Industrial manufacturing robots need sensors in order to allow
them to operate efficiently for pick and place of objects
without crushing or dropping them.
 They use torque sensors which monitor and control rotational forces.
 Acoustical and piezoelectric sensors allow robots to identify
prominent sounds, such as commands, in an area with
background noise.
 Robots can incorporate pre-programmed outputs based upon
the commands heard. This could be especially useful for field
work, or robots in noisy environments.
 The simplest sensors are switch sensors. There are three types
of switch sensor; contact, limit and shaft encoder sensors.
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Need For Sensors
 All of these sensors work without processing. The most useful type of
switch sensor is the so-called “bump switch” which allows a robot to
‘feel’ when it has impacted into an object, although it a simple
concept, but it can be implemented in many different types of robots.
 Light sensors can also be used in multiple ways. They give a robot
the ability to see.
 Light sensors allow robots to measure light intensity, differential
intensity, and break-beam, i.e. the sudden reduction of intensity.
 These light sensors can be applied in different positions and
directions depending on the robot’s intended purpose.

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Introduction
• The interaction of the robot with the environment set-ups needs
mechanisms known as sensors, that can perform the following
functions:
1. Motion control variables, detection.
2. Robot guidance without obstruction.
3. Object identification tasks.
4. Handling the objects.
5. Protect against dangerous and unexpected situations.
Especially if the robot must work close to humans.
6. Allow “intelligent” recovery form error conditions.

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Robotic Sensing
 Robotic sensing is a branch of robotics science intended to give
robots sensing capabilities, so that robots are more human-like.
 Robotic sensing mainly gives robots the ability to see, touch, hear
and move and uses algorithms that require environmental
feedback.
 The use of sensors in robots has taken them into the next level of
creativity. Most importantly, the sensors have increased the
performance of robots to a large extent. It also allows the robots to
perform several functions like a human being.
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SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
 Sensors are devices that responds to a physical stimulus heat, light,
sound, pressure, magnetism, motion, etc. and convert that into an
electrical signal. They perform an input function.
 Actuators are devices which perform an output function and are
used to control some external device, for example movement.
Coverts electrical energy to mechanical movement (motors).
 Both sensors and actuators are collectively known as Transducers.
 Transducers are devices used to convert energy of one kind into
energy of another kind.
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Robot Sensors
 Robotic sensors are used to estimate a robot's condition and
environment. These signals are passed to a controller to enable
appropriate behavior.
 They sense and measure geometric and physical properties of robots
and the surrounding environment
 Position, orientation, velocity, acceleration
 Distance, size
 Force, moment
 Temperature, Luminance
 Sensors in robots are based on the functions of human sensory
organs.
 Robots require extensive information about their environment in
order to function effectively.
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Human sensing and organs
• Vision: eyes (optics, light)
• Hearing: ears (acoustics, sound)
• Touch: skin (mechanics, heat)
• Odor: nose (vapor-phase chemistry)
• Taste: tongue (liquid-phase chemistry)

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TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS
 Transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable
(e.g., force, pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate, etc.) into
another form. A common conversion is to electrical voltage, and the
reason for making the conversion is that the converted signal is more
convenient to use and evaluate using a digital computer.
 Sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a
physical variable of interest. Some of the common sensors and
transducers include strain gauges (used to measure force and
pressure), thermocouples (temperatures), speedometers (velocity),
and Pitot tubes (flow rates).
 Earlier we have seen that sensors can be clarified into external and
internal sensors based on their functions.

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TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS
Transducers and sensors can also be classified into two basic types
depending on the form of the converted signal. The two types a
1. Analog transducers
Analog transducers provide a continuous analog signal such as
electrical voltage
or current. This signal can then be interpreted as the value of the
physical variable
that is being measured.
2. Digital transducers
Digital transducers produce a digital output signal, either in the form
of a set
Department of parallel
of Mechanical status
Engineering, bits
MIT-WPU, Puneor a series of pulses that can
Jan 27, 2025 be 13
Desirable features of sensors
1.Accuracy: The accuracy of the measurement should be as high as
possible. Accuracy is interpreted to mean that the true value of the
variable can be sensed with no systematic positive or negative errors in
the measurement. Over many measurements of the variable, the
average error between the actual value and the sensed value will tend
to be zero.
2. Precision: The precision of the measurement should be as high as
possible. Precision means that there is little or no random variability in
the measured variable. The dispersion in the values of a series of
measurements will be minimized.
3. Operating range: The sensor should possess a wide operating range
and should be accurate and precise over the entire range.
4. Speed of response: The transducer should be capable of responding
to changes in the sensed variable in minimum time. Ideally, the
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Desirable features of sensors
5. Calibration: The sensor should be easy to calibrate. The time and
trouble required to accomplish the calibration procedure should be
minimum. Further, the sensor should not require frequent recalibration.
The term ‘drift’ is commonly applied to denote the gradual loss in
accuracy of the sensor with time and use, and which would necessitate
recalibration.
6. Reliability: The sensor should possess a high reliability. It should not
be subject to frequent failures during operation.
7. Cost and ease of operation: The cost to purchase, install, and
operate the sensor should be as low as possible. Further, the ideal
circumstance would be that the installation and operation of the device
would not require a specially trained, highly skilled operator

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USES OF SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
The measure use of sensors in industrial robotics and other
automated manufacturing system can be divided into four basic
categories
1. Safety monitoring
2. Interlocks in work cell control
3. Part inspection for quality control
4. Determining positions and related information about objects in the
robot cell.

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Robotic Sensor Classification
In general, robotic sensors can be divided into two classes:

i. Internal state sensors - The sensors that provide the information like
joint position, velocity and acceleration are known as internal state
sensors. The information of object handling are supplied as a feedback
from force and torque sensors termed as contact type internal state
sensors.

ii. External state sensors –The robots are being guided by the help of
vision and range sensors that are known as non-contact external
state sensors.
The task of object identification is done by proximity and touch sensors
known as contact type external state sensors.
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Robotic Sensor Classification

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Sensors Used in Robots
1. Proximity and Range Sensors
2. Tactile Sensors
3. Miscellaneous Sensors and sensor-based
systems
4. Machine Vision Sensors

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Touch Sensors
The touch sensors gather the information established by the contact
between the parts to be handled and the fingers in the manipulator end
effectors. The signals of touch information are useful in:
 locating the objects.
 recognizing the object type.
 Force and torque control needed for task manipulation.

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Types of Touch Sensors
1. Binary sensors detect the existence of the object to be handled. For
example, micro- switches and limit switches.
2. Analog sensors produce proportional output signal for the force
exerted locally. For example, a code wheel with a plunger.
A useful application of binary sensors is to use it on a robot engaged in
contact inspection of the parts.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT-WPU, Pune Jan 27, 2025 21

BINARY SENSORS
The devices that deliver sensing
signal by contact at two gripping
points are termed the binary
sensors. The contact with the
parts results in deflection and this
information is sufficient to
determine the presence of the
object between the fingers. The
proper grasping and manipulation
of the object in the work
envelope can be easily achieved
through centering of the fingers
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Jan 27, 2025given 22
ANALOG SENSORS
This type of sensors are featured
by spring actuated plunger
connected to a code wheel. The
deflection of the plunger rod by
the action of contact force,
results in rotation of the wheel
which gives an output
proportional to the sensors force.
If k is the spring rate and is the
deflection of the plunger
recorded, the force of contact is
given by,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT-WPU, Pune Jan 27, 2025 23
Proximity and Range Sensors
The output of the proximity sensors gives an indication of the presence of an object
within the vicinity job operation. In robotics these sensors are used to generate
information of object grasping and obstacle avoidance.
Typical application of proximity sensors includes:

‫ ש‬Object detection
‫ ש‬Collision avoidance
‫ ש‬Object verification & counting
• Commonly available proximity sensors are:
1. Photoelectric/optical sensors
2. Inductive proximity sensors
3. Capacitive proximity sensors
4. Ultrasonic proximity sensors
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Inductive Sensors
• Principle
The ferromagnetic material brought close to
this type of sensor results in change in position
of the flux lines of the permanent magnet
leading to change in inductance of the coil. The
induced current pulse in the coil with change in
amplitude and shape is proportional to rate of
change of flux line in magnet.
• Construction
The proximity inductive sensor basically
consists of a wound coil located in front of a
permanent magnet encased inside a rugged
housing. The leads from the coil, embedded in
resin is connected to the display through a
connector.

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Hall-Effect Sensors
Principle:
Hall-Effect deals with the voltage between the two points in a conductor which changes
by the near field of the magnetized or ferromagnetic material. The sensor experiences
a weakened magnetic field in the close proximity of a ferromagnetic materials, due to
the bending of the flux lines of the magnet through approaching object.
E.R. Hall in 1879 discovered Hall Effect, which states that "A beam of charged particles
passing through a magnetic field experiences a force that deflect the beam from the
straight-line path".
Electrons (negative charged particles) are
made to pass through a plate rectangular in
shape and a magnetic field is applied at
right angle to the plane of plate as shown in
Fig. The electrons are deflected towards one
side of the plate making that side
negatively charged and other side positively
charged. The force due to applied magnetic
field is known as Lorentz force.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT-WPU, Pune Jan 27, 2025 26

Hall-Effect Sensors
Construction:
A sensor element is stationed
between the poles of a horse shoe
magnet constructed inside a
container. The decrease in the
strength of the magnetic field
resulting due to the proximity of
the object field reduces the
voltage across the sensor. The
sensor gives binary output for the
decision-making devices of control
for further actions. The silicon
makes the ideal selection for a
semiconductor in terms of size,
strength and capacity to electrical
interference prevention.

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Hall-Effect Sensors
Advantages of Hall Effect Sensors:
 They can operate as switches at high frequency.
 They cost less than electromechanical devices.
 They are free from contact bounce problem.
 They can be used under severe environmental service conditions as
they are immune to environmental contaminations.
 They can be used as proximity, position and displacement sensors.

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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
The previously discussed
proximity sensors are useful for
detection of ferro-magnetic matter
only. If the robot has to handle
other type of materials ultrasonic
sensors find the application.
Construction:
The main part in this type of
sensor is the transducer which can
act both as transmitter and
receiver. The sensor is covered by
a resin block which protects from
dust and humidity. For the
acoustic damping, absorber
material is provided. Finally a
metallic housing gives general
protection.
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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Operation:
The acoustic waves emitted by the sensors reach the object and get reflected and the
receiver sensors the waves to generate the information about the presence of the
object. This type of operation is the echo mode type. When the sensor acts only as the
transmitter the waves get blocked by the presence of the object and the receiver gets
no signal. This type is known as opposed mode. The echo mode type of operation is as
shown in figure.

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Optical Sensors
Optical Sensors are similar to ultrasonic
sensors. The proximity of the object is
detected by the action of the travelling light
wave as it propagates from the transmitter
and reflected by the object towards the
receiver.
The light emitted by a diode is focused by the
transmitter lens, on to the object surface. The
reflected light waves travel back and
received by the solid-state photo diode,
through a receiver lens. When the object is
within the range of the sensor it is possible to
detect the presence of the receiver. The
range is defined by the position and
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Range Sensors
 The distance between the object and the robot hand is measured
using the range sensors within it is range of operation. The
calculation of the distance is by visual processing.
 Range sensors find use in robot navigation and avoidance of the
obstacles in the path.
 The exact location and the general shape characteristics of the part
in the work envelope of the robot is done by special applications for
the range sensors.
 There are several approaches like, triangulation method, structured
lighting approach and time-of-flight range finders etc. In these cases
the source of illumination can be light-source, laser beam or based on
ultrasonics.

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Triangulation Method
This is the simplest of the techniques,
which is easily demonstrated in the
Figure. The object is swept over by a
narrow beam of sharp light. The sensor
focused on a small spot of the object
surface detects the reflected beam of
light. If 'e' is the angle made by the
illuminating source and 'b' is the
distance between source and the
sensor, the distance 'd' of the sensor on
the robot is given as,
d= b.tanθ
The distance ‘d’ can be easily
transformed into 3D co-ordinates.

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TACTILE SENSORS
 Tactile sensors are devices which indicate contact between
themselves and some other solid object.

 Tactile sensing devices can be divided into two classes: touch sensors
and force sensors.

 Touch sensors provide a binary output signal which indicates whether

or not contact has been made with the object.

 Force sensors (also sometimes called stress sensors) indicate not only
that contact has been made with the object but also the magnitude of
the contact force between the two objects.
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 Tactile Sensors
• Tactile sensing includes any form of sensing which requires physical touching between the
sensor and the object to be sense.
• The need for touch or tactile sensors occurs in many robotic applications, from picking
oranges to loading machines. Important application currently is the general problem of
locating, identifying, and organizing parts that need to be assembled.
• Tactile sensor system includes the capability to detect such things as:
1. Presence
2. Part shape, location, orientation, contour examination
3. Contact are pressure and pressure distribution
4. Force magnitude, location, and direction
5. Surface inspection : texture monitoring, joint checking, damage detection
6. Object classification : recognition, discrimination
7. Grasping : verification, error compensation (slip, position ,orientation)
8. Assembly monitoring

ROBOTICS
35
• The major components of a tactile/touch sensor system are:

1. A touch surface
2. A transduction medium, which convert local forces or moments into
electrical signals.
3. Structure
4. Control/interface

ROBOTICS
36
Touch sensors
Touch sensors are used to indicate that contact has been made between two objects
without regard to the magnitude of the contacting force. Included within this category
are simple devices such as limit switches, microswitches, and the like. The simpler
devices are frequently used in the design of interlock systems in robotics.

For example, they can be used to indicate the presence or absence of parts in a fixture
or at the pickup point along a conveyor. Another use for a touch-sensing device would
be as part of an inspection probe which is manipulated by the robot to measure
dimensions on a work part. A robot with six degrees of freedom would be capable of
accessing surfaces on the part that would be difficult for a three-axis coordinate
measuring machine, the inspection system normally considered for such an inspection
task. Unfortunately, the robot's accuracy would be a limiting factor in contact
inspection work.
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Force Sensors
The wrist force sensor shown in Figure, is used to
measure the force and torque induced on the wrist
of the robotic manipulator. They can also be used
to measure the joint forces. Typical force/torque
sensor work on the strain gauge principle. The
change in the resistance of the electrical strain
gauges effected by the strain due to change in
force induced is a measure of force and torque.
The construction of the sensor has got a disc
housing support and a deflection bar. The strain
gauges are mounted on the six faces of the
deflection bar. The force on the wrist is
transformed into measurable deflections or
displacements at the wrist.
A balanced Wheatstone bridge is used to arrange
the four resistance. The galvanometer connected
between X and Y with equal potential shows zero
deflection when there is no force exerted. The
force on the wrist changes the resistance in any
one arm, which results in current flow and leads to
the movement of the galvanometer needle. The
change in resistance is given by

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Encoders
There are two types encoders in use:
1. Incremental encoder that measures rotational speed and
2. The Linear encoders that measures linear speed.

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Incremental Encoder
It senses the shaft rotation. A transparent
disc with opaque radial lines (equally
spaced) is mounted on the rotating shaft.
The light coming from a lamp passes
through the disc (rotating) and reaches
the photocell counter that counts the
passing of opaque lines crossing the light
rays. The stationary mask with opaque
lines of same spacing and thickness the
signal produced is stronger. The pulse
frequency is the measure of speed.

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Linear Encoder

The moving scale with parallel

opaque lines is mounted on the
machine slide. A skewed fixed mask
is kept in between the moving scale
and the lamp. The light from the
lamp passing through the moving
opaque lines produces pulses
sensed by photocells. The pulses are
the measure of linear speed of the
machine slide.

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MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS
 The miscellaneous category covers the remaining types of sensors and transducers that
might be used for interlocks and other purposes in robotic work cells.

 This category includes devices with the capability to sense variables such as
temperature pressure, fluid flow, and electrical properties.

 An area of robotics research that might be included in this chapter is voice sensing or
voice programming. Voice-programming systems can be used in robotics for oral
communication of instructions to the robot. Voice sensing relies on the techniques of
speech recognition to analyze spoken words uttered by a human and compare those
words with a set of stored word patterns. When the spoken word matches the stored
word pattern, this indicates that the robot should perform some particular actions which
correspond to the word or series of words.

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Sensor devices used in robot workcells
Ammeter–(miscellaneous) Electrical meter used to measure electrical current.
Eddy current detectors–(proximity sensor) Device that emits an alternating magnetic
field at the tip of a probe, which induces eddy currents in any conductive object in the
range of the device. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a conductive object.
Electrical contact switch–(touch sensor) Device in which an electrical potential is
established between two objects, and when the potential becomes zero, this indicates
contact between the two objects. ercial device. Can be used to indicate presence or
absence of a conductive object.
Infrared sensor–(proximity sensor) Transducer which measures temperatures by the
infrared light emitted from the surface of an object. Can be used to indicate presence or
absence of a hot object.
Limit switch–(touch sensor) Electrical on–off switch actuated by depressing a
mechanical
Department lever orEngineering,
of Mechanical button onMIT-WPU,
the device.
Pune Can be used to measure presence or absence
Jan 27, 2025 43
Sensor devices used in robot workcells
Linear variable differential transformer–(miscellaneous) Electromechanical
transducer used to measure linear or angular displacement.
Microswitch–(touch sensor) Small electrical limit switch (see, limit switch). Can be used
to indicate presence or absence of an object.
Ohmmeter–(miscellaneous) Meter used to measure electrical resistance.
Optical pyrometer–(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Device used to measure high
temperatures by sensing the brightness of an object’s surface. Can be used to indicate
presence or absence of a hot object.
Photometric sensors–(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Various transducers used to
sense light. Category includes photocells, photoelectric transducers, phototubes,
photodiodes. phototransistors, and photoconductors. Can be used to indicate presence
or absence of an object.
Piezoelectric
Department accelerometer–(miscellaneous)
of Mechanical Engineering, MIT-WPU, Pune Sensor used to indicate
Jan 27,or2025
measure44
Sensor devices used in robot work cells
Potentiometer–(miscellaneous) Electrical meter used to measure voltage.
Pressure transducers–(miscellaneous) Various transducers used to indicate air
pressure and other.
Radiation pyromete–(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Device used to measure high
temperatures by sensing the thermal radiation emitting from the surface of an object.
Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a hot object.
Strain gage–(force sensor) Common transducer used to measure force, torque,
pressure, and other related variables. Can be used to indicate force applied to grasp an
object.
Thermistor—(miscellaneous) Device based on electrical resistance used to measure
temperatures.
Thermocouple—(miscellaneous) Commonly used device used to measure
Department of Mechanical
temperatures. Based Engineering,
on the MIT-WPU,
physicalPune
principle that a junction of two Jan 27, 2025 metals
dissimilar 45
Sensor devices used in robot work cells
Vacuum switches–(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Device used to indicate negative
air pressures. Can be used with a vacuum gripper to indicate presence or absence of an
object.
Vision sensors–(vision system) Advanced sensor system used in conjunction with
pattern recognition and other techniques to view and interpret events occurring in the
robot workplace.
Voice sensors–(voice and speed recognition) Advanced sensor system used to
communicate
commands or information orally to the robot

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VELOCITY SENSORS
 Velocity information is required for closed loop feedback control using a PD or PID
controller. One of the most commonly used devices for the feedback of velocity
information is the dc tachometer.
 A tachometer is essentially a dc generator providing an output voltage proportional
to the angular velocity of the armature. Velocity information can also be obtained
from an incremental encoder in which the rate at which the dark and transparent
slots cross the emitter receiver pair indicate the velocity of the rotating shaft. A
tachometer can be described by the relation,

where V(t) is the output voltage of the tachometer in volts, K,(t) is the tachometer
constant, usually in V/rad/s and ω is the angular velocity in radians per second.

 Tachometers are generally used to provide velocity information to the controller.

This can be used for performing velocity control of a device or, in many cases, to
increase the value of K, in a system, thereby improving the stability of the system
and its response to disturbances.

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VELOCITY SENSORS
 Direct current tachometers provide
a voltage output proportional to
the armature rotational velocity,
hence they are analog devices.
There is a digital equivalent of the
de tachometer which provides a
pulse train output of a frequency
proportional to the angular
velocity. They are in effect,
encoders which were described in
Figure illustrates a typical dc the previous section.
tachometer

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IR Distance Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector

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IR Distance Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector

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Based on Locomotion:
• Cylindrical robots: The body of this type of robot is such that
the robotic arm can move up and down along a vertical
member, rotate about vertical axis and the arm can also
extend or contract.
• Spherical Robots: This type of robot works in a spherical
system. It can move in a bi-angular and single linear direction.

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Based on mobility level:
• Wheeled Robots and legged Robots: These type
of robots can move along the ground surface using wheels.
• Airborne Robots: These robots can fly through the air
• Aquatic Robots: These robots can work on or under water.

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THANK YOU . . .