NFPA-291 2019

NFPA-291 2022
(13) Converting Hydrant Flow Test Results to GPM -
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 #370 – NFPA Guidance on Fire Hydrant
Testing

Learn when and how cities should perform hydrant

flow tests

During a fire emergency, reliable sources of water can mean

the difference between life and death. This is why the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) outlines fire
hydrant testing that measures real-world pressure and flow in
a city’s water distribution system.
In this blog, we discuss how often flow tests are needed to
ensure hydrants will work as expected during a fire. We also
dig into the details of what should be done to ensure a water
supply meets firefighting requirements.
When does NFPA require fire hydrant testing?

Regular fire hydrant testing ensures the ability to provide water at an

acceptable pressure and flow rate for public health and firefighting
operations. Most jurisdictions also require hydrant flow tests to design
fire sprinkler systems for commercial or residential structures.
The 2022 edition of NFPA 291: Recommended Practice for Fire Flow
Testing and Marking of Hydrants (4.2.2) recommends that fire
hydrants should maintain a residual pressure of 20 psi (pounds per
square inch), or 1.4 bar, for effective firefighting, as well as
to prevent backflow that could contaminate the public water supply.

NFPA 291 stipulates hydrant flow tests every five years to ensure
that changing conditions in the piping and system demands won’t
impede hydrants’ ability to deliver water.

NFPA 291 stipulates hydrant flow tests every five years to ensure that
changing conditions in the piping and system demands won’t impede
hydrants’ ability to deliver water.
Performed by city officials or professional contractors, fire hydrant testing
verifies the performance of a city’s water distribution system, determining the
pressure and rate of flow available at various locations. It measures static (non-
flowing) and residual (flowing) pressure, as well as the rate of discharge in
gallons per minute (GPM) of each fire hydrant.
The data that’s collected is used for two important purposes:
•Uncovering closed valves, heavy pipe-wall deposits, or other problems
in a water distribution system. Reduced rates of flow often stem from
blockages or other infrastructure problems.
•Properly designing fire sprinkler systems for commercial and
residential structures. If water supply pressure and flow readings are off, it
can lead to an underdeveloped system that requires additional fire pumps or an
expensive overhaul of
Besides delivering pipe of
peace fitting.
mind that hydrants will work in an
emergency, hydrant flow tests enable municipalities to color-code their
fire hydrants according to their strength of output. The colors categorize
hydrants by the GPM of their flow. For instance, the color-coding scheme
recommended by NFPA 291 (5.1) and The American Water Works
Association says light blue hydrants have a capacity of 1,500 GPM or
more (“very good flow”) and red hydrants have a capacity below 500
GPM (“inadequate”).
This system allows fire departments to assess their water
resource capabilities quickly when arriving on the scene of an
emergency. You can check out our previous blog to learn more
about fire hydrant colors and what they mean.
Preparing to conduct the test

Specific instructions for conducting fire hydrant testing can be found in NFPA
291’s Chapter 4, “Flow Testing.” NFPA 291 guidelines require identifying a
residual (test) hydrant to measure static and residual pressure, as well as
one or more flow hydrants.
Static pressure represents the pressure at a given point under normal
distribution system conditions. It is measured at the residual hydrant
with no hydrants flowing. Residual pressure is the pressure that exists
in the water distribution system while water is flowing. It is measured
at the residual hydrant at the same time flow readings are taken at the
flow hydrants.
To determine how many flow hydrants are needed, keep in mind that NFPA
291 recommends flowing enough water to provide at least a 10% drop in
residual pressure compared to the static pressure (4.4.6). Further, it states
that testers may need to “declare an artificial drop in the static pressure of
10 percent” in “water supply systems where additional municipal pumps
increase the flow and pressure as additional test hydrants are opened.” NFPA
has updated this guidance from the 2019 edition, which recommended
flowing the total demand necessary for firefighting purposes during the test,
or enough water to provide at least a 25% drop in residual pressure
compared to the static pressure. (In 2018, Sprinkler Age noted that the 25%
Both editions say that if the mains are small and the system is
weak, only one or two hydrants need to flow (2022: 4.4.8/2019:
4.3.7). If the mains are large and the system is strong, as many
as eight flow hydrants may be required (2022: 4.4.9/2019:
4.3.8).
Before starting a flow test, it’s important to notify the water
company or water authority. Opening a hydrant could disrupt
normal operating conditions for the water distribution system in
an area.
Testers should also assemble the proper equipment, including:
•A flow test kit that includes a hand-held pitot gauge to take the pressure
and rate-of-flow readings, as well as the correct nozzle size to attach to the
hydrants
•An outlet-nozzle cap outfitted with a pressure gauge that’s used on the
residual hydrant
•A simple ruler for measuring the inside diameter of each flow hydrant’s
outlet nozzle
•A hydrant wrench for accessing hydrants to take residual and flow readings

A water diffuser and sock can also help prevent

damage to landscaping and roadways, and redirect
water to stop ice patches from forming on certain
surfaces in the winter. It’s wise to check that local
drains are not blocked by leaves or other debris to
prevent water backup. Portable radios can also
make testing easier when more than one hydrant
flows.
he 2022 edition of NFPA 291 (4.3.1) now suggests conducting hydrant flow
tests during periods of “periods of peak demand, based on knowledge of
the water supply and engineering judgment,” which is an update from the
2019 edition’s guidance to do it during periods of “ordinary demand” (NFPA
2019: 4.2.1) That’s likely because many fire protection professionals
recommend performing flow tests during peak morning hours to reflect the
worst-possible scenario during an emergency. Street pressures can fluctuate
as much as 10 psi in the morning, compared to later in the day when
demand is typically less.
How to conduct a hydrant flow test

Here’s an overview of how to perform a hydrant flow test. Read this

carefully: It is not meant as a comprehensive step-by-step guide.
Testers should always consult their local authority having jurisdiction
(AHJ) and fire department guidelines for the most accurate
information.
1.Determine the location of the test by selecting a group of hydrants in the same
vicinity. Remember, as many as eight hydrants may be required for robust
systems with large water mains.
2.Mark the hydrant measuring pressure as the residual hydrant. Both static
pressure (when flow hydrants are closed) and residual pressure (when flow
hydrants are open) are assessed from this hydrant. The residual hydrant should be
between the hydrant(s) to be flowed and the large mains that supply water to the
area.
3.Flush the residual hydrant to remove any sediment and attach a nozzle cap with
a gauge to the hydrant’s outlet.
4.Slowly release the main valve until air is vented. Take a static pressure reading.
5.Measure the inside diameter of the outlet nozzle or hydrant outlet where flow
occurs. A hydrant’s inside diameter is usually 4”.
6.Field personnel should slowly open each flowing fire hydrant, one at a time, to
avoid pressure surges.
7.After the residual pressure read from the outlet cap stabilizes, take readings at
each flow hydrant using a pitot gauge. Residual pressure and pitot gauge readings
must be taken simultaneously. For accurate pitot gauge readings, the pitot tube
should be held downstream and in the center of the nozzle.
1.Record both the residual pressure at the residual hydrant and
pitot gauge readings at the flow hydrant(s).
2.Slowly close each fire hydrant.
3.Use the PSI readings from the residual hydrant’s static and
residual pressure, the coefficient determined by measuring the
inside diameter of the hydrant’s outlet nozzle, and other factors to
determine two sequential numbers using two sequential formulas:
the discharge, aka the gallons flowing during the test (gpm),
followed by the flow predicted at the desired residual
pressure, aka the available fire flow.
The math needed to assess the results

As mentioned above, the tester needs to gather key information to run two
equations in sequence.
The first equation determines the flow (gpm) from the tested fire
hydrants based on the pitot gauge pressure readings. A version of it is
found in section 4.93 of NFPA 291:
Q = 29.83 * c * d2 * √P
Where:
Q = discharge; the gallons flowing during the test (gpm)
c = coefficient of discharge, which represents friction loss. It’s
determined by assessing the shape of the transition between the
vertical barrel of the hydrant and the horizontal outlet. Most hydrants
have a smooth and rounded transition resulting in a .90 coefficient of
discharge but not all of them (as shown below)
d = diameter of the outlet
P = the pressure reading at the pitot gauge during
the test (PSI)
You can read a more in-depth look at calculating this gpm value plus access a
handy calculator in our previous blog: “
Pitot Gauges: How Do I Calculate the PSI to GPM Conversion?”
The second formula estimates the “flow predicted at desired residual
pressure,” which is sometimes called the “available fire flow” (AFF).
This essential equation is found in section 4.12.1.2 of NFPA 291, but
here is a version with more steps broken out:
QR = Q * (((S – 20)0.54) ÷ ((S – R)0.54)))

Where:
QR = flow predicted at desired residual pressure/available fire flow
Q = the discharge (gpm) measured during the test (the result of the first equation)
S = the static pressure measured during the test
20 = the amount of minimum pressure (in psi) required for most municipal water
supplies to prevent backflow and achieve fire protection objectives.
(NFPA 291 calls the “S – 20” calculation above “hr,” which equals “pressure drop to
desired residual pressure”)
R = the residual pressure measured during the test
(NFPA 291 calls the “S – R” calculation above “Hf,” which equals the “pressure drop
measured during test”)
0.54 = a constant within the Hazen-Williams equation
After conducting a hydrant test, testers plug in their measurements
to the two formulas above, completing one after the other.

Fire hydrant testing ensures that hydrants and sprinklers can

provide adequate protection

The middle of a fire emergency is not the right time to find out that fire
hydrants or sprinklers don’t have enough flow and pressure. Regular fire
hydrant testing ensures that this vital equipment works as intended. And
when requirements aren’t up to par, these assessments enable repairs to be
proactively scheduled so problems can be dealt with before they could lead
to loss of life or property.
How to Pressure Test a Fire Hydrant