UNIT II: METHODS

OF ASSESSMENT
IN CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGY

RUPSA KARMAKAR(M.A,M.PHIL,PH
D)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, YENEPOYA
UNIVERSITY
IN THIS MODULE WE WILL ENCOUNTER

● OBSERVATION, CASE HISTORY

● INTERVIEW METHODS: STRUCTURED AND
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
● PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS: IQ, NEURO
PSYCHOLOGICAL,PERSONALITY AND
PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS

Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal

evaluations administered to assess the cognitive and
emotional functioning of clients or patients. These tests
can include questionnaires and interviews, which are
also designed to measure unobserved constructs.useful
psychological test/scale must be both valid (i.e., there is
evidence to support the idea that the test or scale
measures what it is purported to measure and “how well
it does so”) and reliable (i.e., internally consistent or
give consistent results over time, across raters, etc.).
Therefore, a test should meet the criterion of
standardization.
● Psychological assessment is a process that involves the
integration of information from multiple sources, such as
tests related to ability, intelligence, interests or attitudes, as
well as information from personal interviews.
● Collateral information is also collected about personal,
occupational, or medical history, such as from records or
from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous
therapists or physicians.
● Moreover the psychological assessment is a structured
interview that gathers information from and/or tests a
person to evaluate his or her mental health. It is “an
extremely complex process of solving problems (answering
questions) in which psychological tests are often used as
one of the methods of collecting relevant data” (Anastasi,
1990).
● The psychological assessment gathers information about the
individual to provide him/her guidance and counseling. It is
the first step in any guidance and counseling situation. The
process typically starts with a key complaint or presenting
problem—this is usually what prompts the person to seek
help. A complete psychological assessment should include:
biopsychosocial history, neurological assessment,
psychological testing and physical examination.
● Once it is completed, the assessment will help to establish
either a tentative or definitive diagnosis. With this information,
the counselor can inform to the client about the results, and
psychotherapy/counseling can be given.
● Thus, a psychological assessment is the attempt of a skilled
professional, usually a psychologist, to use the techniques and
tools of psychology to learn either general or specific facts
about another person, either to inform others of how they
function now, or to predict their behaviour and functioning in
Maloney and Ward describe assessment as follows. It

1) Typically does not involve defined procedures or steps

2) Frequently uses tests

3) Contributes to some decision process to some problem, often by

redefining

the problem, breaking the problem down into smaller pieces, or highlighting

some part(s) of the problem

4) Requires the examiner to consider, evaluate, and integrate the data

5) Produces results that can not be evaluated solely on psychometric

grounds

6) Is less routine and inflexible, more individualised.

GOALS OF ASSESSMENT
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

1. Self Understanding
2. To Diagnose Client’s Problems
3. To Help in Career Planning and Education
4. To Help Predict the Future Performance
5. To Evaluate the Outcome of Counseling
PRINCIPLE OF ASSESSMENT

The principles of assessment have been given by Shertzer and Linden which states
that assessment should be Holistic, Ongoing, Balanced, Accurate and Confidential.

● Assessment should be Holistic

● Assessment should be on Going
● Assessment should be Balanced
● Assessment should be Accurate:
● Assessment should be Confidential
PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment is always a systematized and planned process involving
a number of steps. These are as follows:

• Formulating goals

• Identifying tools and techniques

• Data collection

• Interpreting specific assessment data

• Integrating data from different sources

• Formulating assessment information

• Reformulating goal
Shamim was pursuing his post graduation in psychology and as a
part of an assignment in developmental psychology, he wanted to
understand the way toddlers interact and communicate with each
other during play time. Instead of interviewing the parents/
guardians or teachers, he felt that observing the toddlers in their
naturalistic set up would provide him with accurate and first hand
information.

Peenaz was a research associate and wanted to study the health

related beliefs of fisher folks in her state. She choose interview
method as she felt that this method will help her gather more
information about the health related beliefs of the fisher folks.
THE OBSERVATION METHOD

● Observation method is a fundamental technique of the data

collection. It refers to watching and listening to the behaviour of
the client over time without manipulating and controlling it.
● It also records findings in ways that allow some degree of
analytic interpretation and discussion. Thus, observation
involves broadly selecting, recording and coding behaviour;
therefore, it is scientific.
● Often, some of the most important information you can gather
from the observation of behaviour. Behavioural observations
may be used clinically (such as to add to interview information
or to assess results of treatment).
According to Kerlinger (1995), there are two modes with regard to
observation. One is where we directly observe persons as they
behave or events (for example, employees working in this work set
up) and the other is where we seek information from persons about
their or others' behaviour by asking questions (for example, parent
can be asked about their child’s behaviour at home).
Though, when a researcher needs to manipulate an independent
variable or needs to control effect of certain extraneous variable(s)
then observation can be carried out in an artificial situation like a
laboratory.
Observer plays an immensely important role in observation as he/
she needs to observe and record events and details. Various aids
can be used to carry out observation, that includes the following:
Checklist: Very often based on the domain of observation, a checklist
is created that can then be used while carrying out observation. This
can be termed as a tool for structured observation (discussed later in
this section). Such a checklist could include demographic as well as
behavioural items/ statements.

Ratings scales: Rating scales can also be used during observation.

These scales are more specific compared to checklist.. These scales
include lesser dimensions and are also comparatively well defined.
Thus, statement and items will be marked based on a rating scale.

Video recordings: Observations can also be video recorded so that

they can be referred to later on. Such recordings will ensure that no
information is missed out by the researcher/ observer. Though, prior
permission needs to be taken from the participants with assurance of
confidentiality. In which case spontaneity can get affected and social
desirability may also occur on the part of the participants.
Types of Observation

1. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION :

This type of observation is often used by social anthropologist and can be

used to study tribal groups (Majumdar, 2015). To take an example, if the
researcher is studying rituals and practices of certain community during a
festival, then he/ she will actively participate in the same. As the researcher
is actively involved he/ she is able to gather relevant information about the
day to day activities, rituals, practices etc. of the community/ group
Some of the advantages of this method include opportunity to observe the
behavior of the individuals in a natural set up, and opportunity to build rapport
and closeness with the community/ group members that enables the researcher to
collect in-depth information and develop deeper understanding.

Another disadvantage of this type is that if the participants are aware about the
observer then their behaviour and interaction may get affected as they may not be
spontaneous. Though, to deal with this, deception can be used where the
participants are not aware that they are being studied. But this can give rise to
certain ethical issues and due care needs to be taken to protect the privacy and
rights of the participants. The researcher also needs to be careful in noting down
the observations and interpreting them.
NON PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

An example of non-participant observation would be observing children’s interaction

during playtime using a one way mirror or television camera. Some of the advantages
of this type include, objectivity and ability to be neutral. As the researcher is not
participating, his/her perspective and interpretation can be more objective (also
because he/ she may not be emotionally involved, which can happen in participatory
observation). Thus, his/ her views would not be biased or subjective.

There are disadvantages to this method as well. Though there is greater objectivity
compared to the participant observation, subjectivity on the part of observer /
researcher cannot be ruled out as he/ she will ultimately interpret the behaviour based
what what he/ she sees and perceives. He/ she may also not be in position to ask any
questions to seek clarification. Also the observation is not complete as the interaction/
behaviour is observed during certain time period and the researcher will observe
behavior/ event that is happening in front of him/ her at that moment. The set up is
artificial and the participant are mostly aware that they are being observed, thus, the
spontaneity can get affected and social desirability can also creep in.
STRUCTURED AND UNSTRUCTURED
OBSERVATION

Structured observation: Structured observation is denoted by “ a careful definition of

units to be observed, a clear delineation as to what a person or group to be the
object of observation, what information constitutes the domain of observation, the
size of the group and the selection principle thereof, the standardised conditions of
observation” (Majumdar, 2015, page. 226)

Unstructured observation: In this observation, the guidelines and principles as stated

under structured observation are not available. Though the structured observation
could be more systematic, unstructured observation provides a kind of freedom to
observe the units/ events/ individuals/ phenomena and so on without the pressure of
any conceptual guidelines or framework (Majumdar, 2015)
Advantages of Observation The following are some of the advantages of
observation:

1) This is one of the best methods of obtaining data in a naturalistic

setup.

2) It is helpful when participants are not in position to adequately/

verbally answer the questions. For example, young children may not be
able to answer certain questions.

3) First hand information can be obtained as methods like interview and

so on may not be as reliable as observation.

4) When a method like interview is used, the individuals may not reveal
all the information, but with the help of observation much more
information can be obtained.

5) It can help in verification of information provided by the participants

 Limitations of Observation The following are some of the limitations of
observation:

1) Subjectivity can creep in during data collection and interpretation.

2) The characteristics of the observer like his / her attitudes, beliefs and even
past experiences can have an impact on his/ her perception of the individuals/
events/ phenomena and so on.

3) The researcher may end up with vast information and may not be able to
interpret it adequately.

4) The observation is in the present context and no information about past can
be collected without using certain methods like interview.

5) Yet another problem is related to the validity and reliability of observation.

According to Kerlinger (1995, page 488), “the interpretive burden that the
researcher is subjected to could lead to lower validity. Further, reliability is also
significant in this context. Reliability here is denoted by ‘agreement amongst the
observers”. Thus, using videotapes and records can help achieve a higher
reliability, though if such an agreement is due to chance, for example, then the
CASE STUDY
Case study can be described as an approach that helps in obtaining information
about the unit from varied perspectives. Case study thus helps obtain in-depth
information about the unit .

In psychology, case study is frequently used in varied setups including clinical

setup, research and so on. Case study can be termed as exploratory in nature
where, in-depth data is collected from the unit/ participant using multiple methods
of data collection. With the help of case study method, it is possible to gather
relevant and large amount of data about the unit.

The case study facilitates the exploration of a real issue within a defined context, using
a variety of data sources (Baxter et al., 2008)
A case study employs multiple methods for collecting information, such as interview,
observation, and psychological tests from a variety of respondents who in some way
or the other might be associated with the case and can provide useful information.

With the help of case studies, psychologists have done research to understand
feelings, fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences, parental upbringing and so
on, that helps to understand a person’s mind and behaviour.

Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place
in a person’s life.

A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human
development. Freud’s insights that led to the development of psychoanalytic theory
emerged from his observations and showed that meticulous records must be
maintained on individual case
Case studies provide detailed in-depth depictions of people’s lives. However, while
generalising on the basis of individual cases one needs to be very cautious. The
problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging. It is recommended
that the information should be collected using multiple strategies from different
sources of information by a number of investigators. Careful planning of data
collection is also very necessary. Throughout the process of data collection the
researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence for linking various data
sources having bearing on the research questions
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE STUDY
Some of the significant features of case study method are:

● A single unit or a small sample is studied under case study.

● It is in-depth, thorough and comprehensive study of the unit, be it an
individual, event, organisation/ institution etc. It can be termed as a direct
approach.
● Case study also focuses on reciprocal inter-relationship of the variables and
factors. It can be termed as an exploratory and descriptive in the way the
information obtained about the unit is analysed.
● The unit that is studied is perceived as a whole.
● The unit is studied from various perspectives. Multiple methods of data
collection are used to study the unit.
● The unit that is selected for study is often studied for a long period of time
(though in certain cases a limited time period is specified) using varied
methods so as to obtain necessary information that will enable researcher to
make interpretations and draw conclusions.
Advantages of Case Study 1) It can be effectively used to not only
develop a new theory but also challenge or modify an existing
theory. 2) In-depth and exhaustive information about the unit can
be collected. 3) It provides idea for further research. 4) Certain
unique cases, events and phenomenon can be studied in detail
with help of this method. 5) The information collected can not
only be used to formulate certain hypothesis(es) but it can also
be used in order to develop schedules and questionnaires. 6) It is
possible to use multiple methods of data collection as per the
need of the situation.

Limitations of Case Study 1) The results obtained cannot be

generalised. 2) It is time consuming and also certain level of
expertise and skills are required on part of the researcher. It is
also not cost effective. 3) Subjectivity can creep in during
interpretation of data. 4) Replication may not be possible. 5) It is
INTERVIEW METHODS

Interview can be termed as a direct method that may help in gathering

relevant information directly from the participants.

Kerlinger (1995, page 441) described interview as “a face to face

interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a
person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain
answers pertinent to research problem”.

One of the main aspects of the interview is the interview schedule.

Interview schedule is nothing but questions that the interviewer has to
ask as well as certain guidelines with regard to how the interviewer is
expected to proceed with the interview.
The items in the interview schedule could be open ended or close ended. In open ended
items, a frame is provided for the answer but otherwise the interviewee has freedom to
answer the way he/ she wants to. In close ended items certain fixed alternatives are provided
from which the interviewee has to select, thus, limiting the flexibility of answers. In certain
cases, scales are also used in interview schedule where responses can be provided in terms
of degree of agreement or disagreement.

Care needs to be taken while framing the questions and the following needs to be ensured:

● The question is with focuses on the research problem.

● It is not vague and lacks any ambiguity.
● A question needs to elicit an answer and should not elicit a question.
● Background information needs to be obtained about the study so that
the researcher or interviewer is sure that the respondents will have
answers to questions asked and also to ensure that the possibility of
resistance to the question on part of the interviewees will be low or
negligible.
● A question that may elicit a response that is influenced by social
desirability needs to be avoided.
Below are several aspects which must be kept in mind:

Verbal and face-to-face: what does the client tell you? How much
information are they willing/able to provide?

Paraverbal: how does the client speak? At normal pace, tone,

volume, inflection? What is their command on language, how well
do they choose their words? Do they pick up on non-verbal cues
for speech and turn taking? How organised is their speech?

Situation: Is the client cooperative? Is their participation voluntary?

For what purpose is the interview conducted? Where is the
interview conducted?
There can be two types of interview: Structured and Unstructured.
That is, the interview can range from being totally unplanned i.e.,
unstructured to carefully designed i.e., completely structured.

Structured Interview:

This is also referred to as standardised interview. This type is

standardised, as the name suggests and includes predefined
questions that are sequenced in certain predefined order and also
worded in certain way.The interview schedules for such an
interview are prepared carefully well in advance and with much
deliberations. And it is prepared with a focus on the research
problem.Examples of closed questions are “When did this problem
begin? Was there any particular stressor going on at that time?
Can you tell me about how this problem started?” Closed
interviews are better suited for specific information gathering.
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

● Also termed as unstandardised interview, this type of interview is

more flexible and as such questions are not predetermined and the
interviewer has full freedom to ask the questions in the way and
sequence that he/ she wants to.
● This in a way provides the necessary freedom to the interviewer to
make any modifications as per the demand of the situation.
● Unstructured interviews are better suited for general information
gathering.
● Unstructured interviews often use open questions, which ask for
more explanation and elaboration on the part of the client. Examples
of open questions are “What was happening in your life when this
problem started? How did you feel then? How did this all start?”
 ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW

1) A lot of relevant, in-depth and a large amount of information can be collected

with the help of this method.

2) This method is suitable to collect data regarding certain serious and complex
issues (that could even evoke emotional reactions).

3) This method is flexible and can be used with varied respondents from varied
backgrounds.

4) Since it is face to face, the interviewer also has an advantage of observing the
non verbal behaviour of the interviewee. Certain spontaneous reactions of the
interviewee can also be recorded.

5) It is possible for the interviewer to explain certain questions or words to the

interviewee or clarify any doubts, thus increasing the likelihood of eliciting
appropriate responses.

6) It is comparatively easy for the interviewer to notice if the interviewee is faking

or providing genuine responses.
LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEWING

1) Preparing a suitable and adequate interview schedule is a task in itself

and not only hard work and time but certain level of expertise and skills
are also required.

2) Even interviewing requires necessary expertise and skills.

3) It is time consuming and is not cost effective.

4) It may be difficult to analyse and interpret the responses to the open

ended questions.

5) Subjectivity may creep in.

6) Reliability and validity could be low.

7) Influence of social desirability cannot be ruled out.

FUNCTIONS

Major functions of interview method are:

Description: Interview has been found to be particularly

useful in providing insight into the interactive quality of
social life. The verbal interaction enables the interviewer
in understanding how people view the subject under
investigation.

Exploration: In this the interviewer tries to explore some

new variable for study as it also helps in conceptual
clarity. A review of the work done in the related area also
is taken into account.
PSYCHOMETRIC TEST
Psychological Assessment (IQ)

We may define intelligence as a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in

different ways across the lifespan. In general, intelligence includes the abilities to: ■
acquire and apply knowledge ■ reason logically ■ plan effectively ■ infer
perceptively ■ make sound judgments and solve problems ■ grasp and visualize
concepts ■ pay attention ■ be intuitive ■ find the right words and thoughts with
facility ■ cope with, adjust to, and make the most of new situations
-ALFRED BINET DEVELOPED THE FIRST ACCEPTED
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE SALE IN THE 1900S.

-ALFRED BINET AND THEODORE SIMON WERE THE

FIRST INDIVIDUALS WHO DEVELOPED THE TEST AND
THEY DIVIDED THE BINET-SIMON TEST.

-BINETS PURPOSE WAS TO DEVELOP AN OBJECTIVE

METHOD OF IDENTIFYING THOSE TRULY LACKING IN
ACADEMIC SKILLS.

-INTELLIGENCE IS A “FAULTY” THAT WAS INHERITED

BUT HOW TRAINING AND OPPORTUNITIES ALWAYS
AFFECT IT.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales – Fifth
Edition (SB5)

Measurement Areas:

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales – Fifth Edition (SB5) is designed to test

intelligence and cognitive abilities. This test can be used for ages 2 years 0
months to 89 years 11 months.

The scale provides a Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), Non Verbal (NV) and Verbal (V) domain
scores as well as 5 factor scores: 1. Fluid Reasoning (FR) 2. Knowledge (KN) 3.
Quantitative Reasoning (QR) 4. Visual-Spatial Processing (VS) 5. Working Memory
(WM)
KAUFMAN TEST