Introduction To Computer

Memory

By Mahesh Patel
How Computers Represent Data
All symbols, pictures or words must be
reduced to a string of binary digits.
A binary digit is called a bit and represents
either 0 or 1.
These are the only digits in the binary or
base 2, number system used by computers.
A string of eight bits used to store one
number or character in a computer system is
called a byte.
How Computers Represent Data (Contd…)
 One byte for character A 01000001

 The computer representation in ASCII for the

name Alice is

» 01000001 A
» 01001100 L
» 01001001 I
» 01000011 C
» 01000101 E
How Computers Represent Data (Contd…)
 To represent the numbers 0 through 9 and the letters a
through z and A through Z, computer designers have
created coding systems consisting of several hundred
standard codes.
 In one code, for instance, the binary number 01000001
stands for the letter A.
 Two common coding systems are Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) and American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). See
Table 0.1.
 EBCDIC represents every number, alphabetic character, or
special character with eight bits, used primarily in IBM
and other mainframe computers.
How Computers Represent Data (Contd…)
 ASCII was originally designed as a seven-bit
code, but most computers use eight-bit versions.
 ASCII is used in data transmission, PCs and some
larger computers.
 The computers store a picture by creating a grid
overlay of the picture.
 Each single point in this grid, or matrix is called a
pixel (picture element) and consists of a number
of bits.
How Computers Represent Data (Contd…)
 How is a letter converted to binary form and back?
Primary Storage
 Primary storage is a category of computer storage, often
called main memory.
 Has three functions:
– Stores all or part of the program that is being executed.
– Stores the operating system programs that manage the
operation of the computer.
– Holds data that the program is using.
 Data and program are placed in primary storage
before processing, between processing steps and
after processing has ended prior to being returned
to secondary storage or released as output.
How is memory measured?
 By number of bytes available for storage
Primary Storage…
 Modern primary storage devices include:
– Random access memory (RAM)
• is used for short-term storage of data or program instructions.
RAM is volatile. Its contents will be lost when the computer’s
electric supply is disrupted by a power outage or when the
computer turned off.
– Read-only memory (ROM)
• can only be read from. It cannot be written to. ROM chips
come from the manufacturer with programs already burned in,
or stored. ROM is used in general-purpose computers to store
important or frequently used programs, such as computing
routine for calculating the square roots of numbers.
Memory
 What is random access memory (RAM)?
Memory
 How do program instructions transfer in and out of RAM?
Memory
 What are two basic types of RAM chips?

Static RAM (SRAM) Do not have to

Most
be re-energized
common
as often as
type
DRAM

Faster and
Must be
more reliable
re-energized
than DRAM
constantly Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips
Difference Between Static and Dynamic RAM

Static RAM Dynamic RAM

 Bit stored in form of  Bit stored in the form

voltage. of charge
 The smallest Unit is  The smallest unit is
Flip flop. MOS cell
 Used MOS transistor  Used MOSFET
technology technology
 Low Access time  High access time,
therefore faster Slower
 Expensive.  Inexpensive.
 Low packing density.  High packing density.
 Does not require a  Require a refreshing
refreshing circuit. circuit.
 Large power  Small Power
dissipation. dissipation.
 Used for cash  Used as a main
memory. memory.
 Suitable for text  Suitable for video,
information. graphics information.
Memory
 What is read-only memory (ROM)?

Memory chips that store Nonvolatile memory, it is not

permanent data lost when computer’s
and instructions power is turned off

Three types: EEPROM

(electrically
Firmware— erasable programmable
Manufactured with read-only memory)—
permanently written Type of PROM
data, instructions, containing microcode
PROM
or information programmer
(programmable can erase
read-only
memory)—
Blank ROM
chip onto which
a programmer
can write permanently
ROM Types
 MROM (Masked ROM)
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and
Programmable Read Only Memory)
MROM (Masked ROM):-
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs,
which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):-

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming,
an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained
for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this
charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Secondary Storage Technology
 Secondary storage is used for
relatively long term storage of data
outside the CPU.
 Secondary storage is nonvolatile and
retains data even when the computer
is turned off.
 The most technologies are magnetic
disk, optical disk and magnetic tape.
Storage
 What is storage?
– Holds data, instructions, and information for future use
 Storage medium is physical material used for storage
– Also called secondary storage
Storage
 How does volatility compare?
– Storage medium is nonvolatile—contents retained when power is
off
– Memory is volatile—holds data and instructions temporarily

ON OFF

Screen Display Display appears Display

Volatile

disappears

Memory Data and Data and instructions

(most RAM) instructions erased
(chips on motherboard) available to user
Nonvolatile

Storage Medium Contents available Contents

(floppy disks, Zip disks, to user retained
hard disks, CDs)
Magnetic disk
 There are two kinds of magnetic disk:
– floppy disks
– hard disks
 Magnetic Disks permit direct access to individual
records so that data stored on the disk can be
directly accessed regardless of the order in which
the data were originally recorded.
 Disk storage is often referred to as a direct access
storage device (DASD).
Magnetic Disks
 What is a floppy disk? Thin, circular, flexible film enclosed
in 3.5” wide plastic shell
– Portable, inexpensive storage
shutter
medium (also called diskette) shell

– Thin, circular, flexible disk liner

enclosed in hard plastic shell magnetic

coating
metal hub

flexible thin film

 What is a floppy disk

drive?
– Device that reads from and
writes to floppy disk
– Also called secondary storage

One floppy drive, named drive A

Magnetic Disks
 What is a hard disk?
– The hard-drive is a mechanical storage device typically
located internally.
• Magnetic. Fast recording and recovery of data
• Large storage capacity
• Primary storage device for data and programs
• Speed is measured in R.P.M.’s hard disk installed in system unit
Magnetic Disks
 What are tracks and sectors?

Track Sector
is narrow stores up to
recording band 512 bytes
that forms full of data
circle on disk

Formatting prepares disk for use and marks bad sectors as

unusable
Magnetic Disks
 How does a hard disk work?

Step 3.
When software
requests a disk
access, read/write
Step 2. heads determine
Small motor current or new
spins platters location of data.
while computer
is running.
Step 4.
Head actuator
positions read/write
Step 1.
head arms over correct
Circuit board controls
location on platters to
movement of head
read or write data.
actuator and a small
motor.
Optical Disk
 Also called compact disks or laser
Push the button
optical disks, used laser technology to
to store data at densities many times slide out the tray.
greater than those of magnetic disks.
 The most common optical disk
system used with PCs called CD-
ROM (compact disk read only Insert the
disc,
memory). label side up.
 CD-ROM is read-only storage.
 What are optical discs? Push the same
– Flat, round, portable metal discs made button to close
the tray.
of metal, plastic, and lacquer
– Can be read only or read/write
– Most PCs include an optical disc drive
Optical Discs (Contd…)
 How does a laser read data on an optical disc?
Optical Discs (Contd…)
 How is data stored on an optical disc?
– Typically stored in single track
– Track divided into evenly sized sectors that store items

single track spirals

to edge of disc

disc sectors
Optical Discs (Contd…)
 WORM (write once/read memory) or CD-R
(compact disk-recordable) optical disk systems
allow users to record data only once on an optical
disk.
 New CD-RW (CD-Rewritable) technology has
been developed to allow users to create rewritable
optical disks.
 Digital-video disks (DVDs) also called digital
versatile disks are optical disks the same size as
CD-ROMs but of even higher capacity (minimum
of 4.7 gigabytes of data).
Optical Discs (Contd…)
 What are CD-Rs and CD-RWs?

Must have
CD recorder
or CD-R drive

CD-R (compact disc-recordable)

—disc you can write on once
c

Cannot erase
disc’s contents
CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable)
— erasable disc you can write on
ce

multiple times
Must have
CD-RW software
and CD-RW drive
Optical Discs (Contd…)
 What is a DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc-ROM
or digital video disc-ROM)?
– High capacity disc capable of storing 4.7 GB to 17 GB
– Must have DVD-ROM drive
or DVD player to read
DVD-ROM
– Stores databases, music
complex software, and
movies
Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape is an older storage technology that
still used for secondary storage of large volumes
of information.
 The principle advantages
– its inexpensiveness, its relative stability and its ability
to store very large quantities of information.
 The disadvantages
– its sequentially stored data and its relative slowness
compared to the speed of secondary storage media.
Tape
 What is tape?
– Magnetically coated plastic ribbon capable of storing
large amounts of data at low cost
– Primarily used for backup
PC Cards
 What is a PC Card?
– Adds capabilities to computer
– Credit-card-sized device
commonly used in notebook
computers
Input and Output Devices
 Input devices
– Input devices gather data and convert them into
electronic form for use by the computer.
– Keyboard
• The principal method of data entry for entering text and
numerical data into a computer
– Pointing Devices
• A computer mouse is handheld device with point-and-click
capabilities that is usually connected to the computer by a
cable.
• Touch screens allows users to enter limited amounts of data
by touching the surface of a sensitized video display monitor
with finger or a pointer.
 Source Data Automation
– Captures data in computer-readable form at the time
and place they are created.
– Optical Character Recognition (OCR) devices
translate specially designed mark, characters, and codes
into digital form.
– Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
technology is used primarily in check processing for
the banking industry, which the bottom of typical check
contains characters identifying the bank, checking
account, and check number that are preprinted using a
special magnetic ink.
– A MICR reader translates these characters into digital
form for the computer.
– Handwriting-recognition devices such as pen-based
tablets, notebooks, and notepad are promising new
input technologies.
– These pen-based input devices convert the motion
made by an electronic stylus pressing on a touch-
sensitive tablet screen into digital form.
– Digital scanners translate image such as pictures or
documents into digital form.
– Voice input devices convert spoken words into digital
form for processing by the computer.
– Sensors are devices collect data directly from the
environment for input into a computer system.
What Is Input?
What Is Input?
 What is input?
– Data or instructions entered into memory of computer
– Input device is any hardware component that allows
users to enter data and instructions
What Is Input?
 What are the two types of input?
 Data
 Unprocessed text, numbers, images, audio, and video
 Instructions
 Programs
 Commands
 User responses
The Keyboard
 How is the keyboard divided?
 Typing area
 Numeric keypad
 Function keys, special keys that issue commands
Pointing Devices
 What is a mouse?
 Pointing device that fits under palm of hand
 Pointing device controls movement of pointer, also called
mouse pointer mouse buttons
 Mechanical mouse has wheel
button
rubber or metal ball on
underside
ball

mouse pad
Other Pointing Devices
 What is a trackball?
– Stationary pointing device with a ball
on its top or side
– To move pointer, rotate ball with
thumb, fingers, or palm of hand

 What are a touchpad and a

pointing stick?
 Touchpad is small, flat, rectangular
pointing device sensitive to pressure
and motion
 Pointing stick is pointing device
shaped like pencil eraser positioned
between keys on keyboard
Other Pointing Devices Contd…)
 What are a joystick and a wheel?
– Joystick is vertical lever mounted on a
base
– Wheel is steering-wheel-type input device
 Pedal simulates car brakes and
accelerator

 What is a light pen?

– Handheld input device that can detect
light
 Press light pen against screen surface
and then press button on pen
Other Pointing Devices Contd…)
 What is a touch screen?
 Often used with kiosks
 Touch areas of screen with finger
Keyboard and Pointing Devices
 What is a stylus and a digital pen?
 Looks like a ballpoint pen, but uses pressure to write text
and draw lines
 Used with graphics tablets, flat electronic boards
Voice Input
 How does voice recognition work?
Digital Cameras
 How does a digital camera work?
Digital Cameras
 What is resolution?
 Sharpness and clarity of image
 The higher the resolution, the better the image quality, but
the more expensive the camera
 Pixel (picture element) is single point in electronic image
– Greater the number of pixels, the better the image quality
Video Input
 What is video input?
 Process of entering full-motion images into computer
 Video capture card is adapter card that converts analog video
signal into digital signal that computer can use
 Digital video (DV) camera records video as digital signals
Video Input
 What are a PC video camera and a Web cam?
– PC video camera DV camera used to capture video and
still images, and to make video telephone calls on
Internet
 Also called PC camera
 Web cam video camera whose output displays on a Web
page
Scanners and Reading Devices
 What is a scanner?
– Light-sensing device that reads printed text and graphics
 Used for image processing, converting paper documents into
electronic images

Flatbed Pen or
Handheld

Drum Sheet-fed
Scanners and Reading Devices
Scanners and Reading Devices
 What is an optical reader?
 Device that uses light source to read characters, marks, and
codes and then converts them into digital data
 Optical character recognition (OCR) reads characters in
OCR font
 Optical mark recognition (OMR) reads hand-drawn pencil
marks, such as small circles
Scanners and Reading Devices
 What is a bar code reader?
 Uses laser beams to read bar codes
Scanners and Reading Devices
 What is a magnetic-ink character recognition
(MICR) reader?
– Can read text printed with magnetized ink
– Banking industry almost exclusively uses MICR for
check processing
Biometric Input
 What is biometrics?
 Authenticates person’s identity by verifying personal characteristic
 Fingerprint scanner captures curves and indentations of
fingerprint
 Hand geometry system measures shape and size of person’s
hand
Biometric Input
 What are examples of biometric
technology?
 Voice verification system compares live
speech with stored voice pattern
 Signature verification system
recognizes shape of signature
 Iris recognition system reads patterns in
blood vessels in back of eye
 Biometric data is sometimes stored on
smart card, which stores personal data on
microprocessor embedded in card
Output Devices
 Output Devices
– Display data after they have been processed.
– Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
• The most popular form of information output.
• It works much like a television picture tube, with an electronic
gun shooting a beam of electrons to illuminate the pixels on
the screen.
– Printers
• Produce a printed hard copy of information output.
• Include impact printers ( dot-matrix printer), and non-impact
printers (laser, inkjet, and thermal transfer printers).
Output Devices
– Plotters
• To created high-quality graphics documents with multicolored
pens to draw computer output.
• Slower than printers but are useful for outputting large-size
charts, maps or drawing.
– Voice output devices
• Converts digital output data into intelligible speech.
– Speakers
• To deliver an audio output such as music, that is connected to
the computer.
What is Output?
What is Output?
 What is output?
 Data that has been processed into a useful form,
 Output device is any hardware component that
can convey information to user
Display Devices
 What is a display device?
– Output device that visually conveys information
 Information on display device sometimes
called soft copy
 Monitor houses display device as separate peripheral
Display Devices
 What is a CRT monitor?
– Contains cathode-ray tube (CRT), LCD, LED
– Screen coated with tiny dots of phosphor material
• Each dot consists of a red, blue, and green phosphor
– Common sizes are 15, 17, 19, 21, and 22 inches
• Viewable size is diagonal measurement of actual viewing area
Video Cards
 Video cards plug into the motherboard and are
used to display video.
 VRAM is video memory that enhances the
refreshment rate of the image.
 Video cards have chipsets that can increase the
speed of video display.
Resolution
 Resolution refers to the number of pixels (picture
elements) in the monitor image.
 Increased resolution uses more computer
resources but increases the visual clarity of the
display.
Resolution
 Screen resolution is measured in pixel per inch (ppi), and
printer resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi).
 Computer screen resolution is approximately 72 ppi.
 Width x Height (Pixels) Video Display
– 640 x 480 Low Resolution
– 800 x 600 Medium Resolution
– 1600 x 1200 High Resolution
Printers
 What is a printer?
– Output device that produces text
and graphics on paper
– Result is hard copy, or printout
– Two orientations: portrait and
landscape
Speakers and Headsets
 What is an audio output device?
 Computer component that produces music, speech, or other sounds
 Speakers and headsets are common devices
Ports and Peripherals
 Ports are an interface between the computer and
another peripheral device such as a disk drive,
mouse, printer, modem, monitor, camera, FLASH
drive or keyboard.
Examples:
– Serial
– Parallel
– hot-wire
– USB
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting
 No display in Monitor
– Check All Power Cable And Monitor VGA Cable
– Clean up the insides of your Pc with a paint brush at
least once a month. (Due to Dust)
– Try hooking up an extra cooling fan to your Pc to
reduce the heat.
– Keep your Pc in a well ventilated area such as close to
a window.
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 CPU running but no display on monitor
– Clean your CMOS battery which is attached with your
motherboard, this is just like a watch battery and after
you clean it out by rubbing it a little bit put it back in.
– Then clean your RAM by pulling it out and also dust
off your CPU
– Change Your Power Supply

CMOS Battery
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 3-beeps-no-display-on-monitor
– Remove the RAM from the slot, clean it and place it
back properly
– Try another slot. Check you RAM also

rd
ca
y
or
em
M
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 Hard disk not detected
 Boot Disk Failure

– Check All Power Cable And SATA Cable

Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 No Power in CPU
– Check power supply

Green Black Ware

Ware
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 No Network
 No Network icon

– Check your LAN Cable

Connect properly
– Check your LAN Card
Install properly
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 Document Not
printing

– Check your Printer is online

– Connect your printer And install
– Driver Properly
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 Blue-screen-appears-
and-system-restarts
Troubleshooting (Contd…)
 At First Check your PC and Antivirus install in
your PC it works Properly or not!
 Change Your Ram
 Change Your Hard disk
 Uninstall related Driver and Software
 Install A Fresh OS WIN-7
Thanks