Chapter 2

Properties of Pure Substances

We now turn our attention to the concept of pure substances and the presentation of
their data.

Homogeneous Substance

A substance that has uniform thermodynamic properties throughout is said to be

homogeneous.

Pure Substance

A pure substance has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition and may
exist in more than one phase.

Examples:
1. Water (solid, liquid, and vapor phases)
2. Mixture of liquid water and water vapor
3. Carbon dioxide, CO2
4. Nitrogen, N2
5. Mixtures of gases, such as air, as long as there is no change of phase.
2
Real substances that readily change phase from solid to liquid to gas such as
water, refrigerant-134a, and ammonia cannot be treated as ideal gases in
general.
The pressure, volume, temperature relation, or equation of state for these
substances is generally very complicated, and the thermodynamic properties
are given in table form.
The properties of these substances may be illustrated by the functional
relation F(P,v,T)=0, called an equation of state. The above two figures
illustrate the function for a substance that contracts on freezing and a
substance that expands on freezing.

3
These figures show three regions where a substance like water may exist as a solid,
liquid or gas (or vapor). Also these figures show that a substance may exist as a
mixture of two phases during phase change, solid-vapor, solid-liquid, and liquid-
vapor.

Water may exist in the compressed liquid region, a region where saturated liquid
water and saturated water vapor are in equilibrium (called the saturation region),
and the superheated vapor region (the solid or ice region is not shown).

Let's consider the results of heating liquid water from 20C, 1 atm while keeping the
pressure constant. We will follow the constant pressure process shown in Figure
below. First place liquid water in a piston-cylinder device where a fixed weight is
placed on the piston to keep the pressure of the water constant at all times. As liquid
water is heated while the pressure is held constant, the following events occur.

Process 1-2

The temperature and specific volume will increase from

the compressed liquid, or sub-cooled liquid, state 1, to
the saturated liquid state 2. In the compressed liquid
region, the properties of the liquid are approximately
equal to the properties of the saturated liquid state at
the temperature.
4
Process 2-3

At state 2 the liquid has reached the temperature at which it begins to boil, called the
saturation temperature, and is said to exist as a saturated liquid. Properties at the
saturated liquid state are noted by the subscript f and v2 = vf. During the phase
change both the temperature and pressure remain constant (according to the
International Temperature Scale of 1990, ITS-90, water boils at 99.975C  100C
when the pressure is 1 atm or 101.325 kPa). At state 3 the liquid and vapor phase
are in equilibrium and any point on the line between states 2 and 3 has the same
temperature and pressure.

5
Process 3-4

At state 4 a saturated vapor exists and vaporization is complete. The subscript g will
always denote a saturated vapor state. Note v4 = vg.

The saturation pressure is the pressure at which phase change will occur for a
given temperature. In the saturation region the temperature and pressure are
dependent properties; if one is known, then the other is automatically known.

6
Process 4-5

If the constant pressure heating is continued, the temperature will begin to increase
above the saturation temperature, 100 C in this example, and the volume also
increases. State 5 is called a superheated state because T5 is greater than the
saturation temperature for the pressure and the vapor is not about to condense.
Thermodynamic properties for water in the superheated region are found in the
superheated steam tables, Table A-6.

This constant pressure heating process is illustrated in the following figure.

7
 99.975 

Consider repeating this process for other constant pressure lines as shown below.

8
 373.95

If all of the saturated liquid states are connected, the saturated liquid line is
established. If all of the saturated vapor states are connected, the saturated vapor
line is established. These two lines intersect at the critical point and form what is
often called the “steam dome.” The region between the saturated liquid line and the
saturated vapor line is called by these terms: saturated liquid-vapor mixture
region, wet region (i.e., a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor), two-
phase region, and just the saturation region. Notice that the trend of the temperature
following a constant pressure line is to increase with increasing volume and the trend
of the pressure following a constant temperature line is to decrease with increasing
9
volume.
 P2 = 1000 kPa

P1 = 100 kPa

179.88oC

99.61oC

10
The region to the left of the saturated liquid line and below the critical temperature is
called the compressed liquid region. The region to the right of the saturated vapor
line and above the critical temperature is called the superheated region. See Table
A-1 for the critical point data for selected substances.

Review the P-v diagrams for substances that contract on freezing and those that
expand on freezing.

At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, the phase transition from
liquid to vapor is no longer discrete.

11
The figure below shows the P-T diagram, often called the phase diagram, for pure
substances that contract and expand upon freezing.

The triple point of water is 0.01oC, 0.6117 kPa.

The critical point of water is 373.95oC, 22.064 Mpa.

12
Property Tables

In addition to the temperature, pressure, and volume data, Tables A-4 through A-8
contain the data for the specific internal energy u the specific enthalpy h and the
specific entropy s.
The enthalpy is a convenient grouping of the internal energy, pressure, and volume
and is given by
H U  PV
The enthalpy per unit mass is
h u  Pv
We will find that the enthalpy h is quite useful in calculating the energy of mass
streams flowing into and out of control volumes. The enthalpy is also useful in the
energy balance during a constant pressure process for a substance contained in a
closed piston-cylinder device.
The enthalpy has units of energy per unit mass, kJ/kg.
The entropy s is a property defined by the second law of thermodynamics and is
related to the heat transfer to a system divided by the system temperature; thus, the
entropy has units of energy divided by temperature.

13
Saturated Water Tables
Since temperature and pressure are dependent properties using the phase
change, two tables are given for the saturation region. Table A-4 has
temperature as the independent property; Table A-5 has pressure as the
independent property. These two tables contain the same information and often
only one table is given.

For the complete Table A-4, the last entry is the critical point at 373.95 oC.

TABLE A-4
Saturated water-Temperature table
See next slide.
14
Temp., Sat. Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
T C Press., m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK
Psat kPa
Sat. liquid, Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat.
vf vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg vapor, liquid, sfg vapor,
vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

0.01 0.6117 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

5 0.8725 0.001000 147.03 21.02 2360.8 2381.8 21.02 2489.1 2510.1 0.0763 8.9487 9.0249

10 1.228 0.001000 106.32 42.02 2346.6 2388.7 42.02 2477.2 2519.2 0.1511 8.7488 8.8999

15 1.706 0.001001 77.885 62.98 2332.5 2395.5 62.98 2465.4 2528.3 0.2245 8.5559 8.7803

20 2.339 0.001002 57.762 83.91 2318.4 2402.3 83.91 2453.5 2537.4 0.2965 8.3696 8.6661

25 3.170 0.001003 43.340 104.83 2304.3 2409.1 104.83 2441.7 2546.5 0.3672 8.1895 8.5567

30 4.247 0.001004 32.879 125.73 2290.2 2415.9 125.74 2429.8 2555.6 0.4368 8.0152 8.4520

35 5.629 0.001006 25.205 146.63 2276.0 2422.7 146.64 2417.9 2564.6 0.5051 7.8466 8.3517

40 7.385 0.001008 19.515 167.53 2261.9 2429.4 167.53 2406.0 2573.5 0.5724 7.6832 8.2556

45 9.595 0.001010 15.251 188.43 2247.7 2436.1 188.44 2394.0 2582.4 0.6386 7.5247 8.1633

50 12.35 0.001012 12.026 209.33 2233.4 2442.7 209.34 2382.0 2591.3 0.7038 7.3710 8.0748

55 15.76 0.001015 9.5639 230.24 2219.1 2449.3 230.26 2369.8 2600.1 0.7680 7.2218 7.9898

60 19.95 0.001017 7.6670 251.16 2204.7 2455.9 251.18 2357.7 2608.8 0.8313 7.0769 7.9082

65 25.04 0.001020 6.1935 272.09 2190.3 2462.4 272.12 2345.4 2617.5 0.8937 6.9360 7.8296

70 31.20 0.001023 5.0396 293.04 2175.8 2468.9 293.07 2333.0 2626.1 0.9551 6.7989 7.7540

75 38.60 0.001026 4.1291 313.99 2161.3 2475.3 314.03 2320.6 2634.6 1.0158 6.6655 7.6812

80 47.42 0.001029 3.4053 334.97 2146.6 2481.6 335.02 2308.0 2643.0 1.0756 6.5355 7.6111

85 57.87 0.001032 2.8261 355.96 2131.9 2487.8 356.02 2295.3 2651.4 1.1346 6.4089 7.5435

90 70.18 0.001036 2.3593 376.97 2117.0 2494.0 377.04 2282.5 2659.6 1.1929 6.2853 7.4782

95 84.61 0.001040 1.9808 398.00 2102.0 2500.1 398.09 2269.6 2667.6 1.2504 6.1647 7.4151

100 101.42 0.001043 1.6720 419.06 2087.0 2506.0 419.17 2256.4 2675.6 1.3072 6.0470 7.3542

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

360 18666 0.001895 0.006950 1726.16 625.7 2351.9 1761.53 720.1 2481.6 3.9165 1.1373 5.0537

365 19822 0.002015 0.006009 1777.22 526.4 2303.6 1817.16 605.5 2422.7 4.0004 0.9489 4.9493

370 21044 0.002217 0.004953 1844.53 385.6 2230.1 1891.19 443.1 2334.3 4.1119 0.6890 4.8009 15
373.95 22064 0.003106 0.003106 2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070
TABLE A-5
Saturated water-Pressure table
Press. Sat. Temp., Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
P kPa Tsat C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

Sat. Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat.
liquid, vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg vapor, liquid, sfg vapor,
vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

0.6117 0.01 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

1.0 6.97 0.001000 129.19 29.30 2355.2 2384.5 29.30 2484.4 2513.7 0.1059 8.8690 8.9749

1.5 13.02 0.001001 87.964 54.69 2338.1 2392.8 54.69 2470.1 2524.7 0.1956 8.6314 8.8270

2.0 17.50 0.001001 66.990 73.43 2325.5 2398.9 73.43 2459.5 2532.9 0.2606 8.4621 8.7227

2.5 21.08 0.001002 54.242 88.42 2315.4 2403.8 88.42 2451.0 2539.4 0.3118 8.3302 8.6421

3.0 24.08 0.001003 45.654 100.98 2306.9 2407.9 100.98 2443.9 2544.8 0.3543 8.2222 8.5765

4.0 28.96 0.001004 34.791 121.39 2293.1 2414.5 121.39 2432.3 2553.7 0.4224 8.0510 8.4734

5.0 32.87 0.001005 28.185 137.75 2282.1 2419.8 137.75 2423.0 2560.7 0.4762 7.9176 8.3938

7.5 40.29 0.001008 19.233 168.74 2261.1 2429.8 168.75 2405.3 2574.0 0.5763 7.6738 8.2501

10 45.81 0.001010 14.670 191.79 2245.4 2437.2 191.81 2392.1 2583.9 0.6492 7.4996 8.1488

15 53.97 0.001014 10.020 225.93 2222.1 2448.0 225.94 2372.3 2598.3 0.7549 7.2522 8.0071

20 60.06 0.001017 7.6481 251.40 2204.6 2456.0 251.42 2357.5 2608.9 0.8320 7.0752 7.9073

25 64.96 0.001020 6.2034 271.93 2190.4 2462.4 271.96 2345.5 2617.5 0.8932 6.9370 7.8302

30 69.09 0.001022 5.2287 289.24 2178.5 2467.7 289.27 2335.3 2624.6 0.9441 6.8234 7.7675

40 75.86 0.001026 3.9933 317.58 2158.8 2476.3 317.62 2318.4 2636.1 1.0261 6.6430 7.6691

50 81.32 0.001030 3.2403 340.49 2142.7 2483.2 340.54 2304.7 2645.2 1.0912 6.5019 7.5931

75 91.76 0.001037 2.2172 384.36 2111.8 2496.1 384.44 2278.0 2662.4 1.2132 6.2426 7.4558

100 99.61 0.001043 1.6941 417.40 2088.2 2505.6 417.51 2257.5 2675.0 1.3028 6.0562 7.3589

125 105.97 0.001048 1.3750 444.23 2068.8 2513.0 444.36 2240.6 2684.9 1.3741 5.9100 7.2841

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

20,000 365.75 0.002038 0.005862 1785.84 509.0 2294.8 1826.59 585.5 2412.1 4.0146 0.9164 4.9310

21,000 369.83 0.002207 0.004994 1841.62 391.9 2233.5 1887.97 450.4 2338.4 4.1071 0.7005 4.8076

22,000 373.71 0.002703 0.003644 1951.65 140.8 2092.4 2011.12 161.5 2172.6 4.2942 0.2496 16
4.5439

22,064 373.95 0.003106 0.003106 2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070
The subscript fg used in Tables A-4 and A-5 refers to the difference between the
saturated vapor value and the saturated liquid value region. That is,

u fg ug  u f
h fg hg  h f
s fg sg  s f

The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization).
It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit of mass of saturated
liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or
pressure increases, and becomes zero at the critical point.

17
Quality; Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture

Now, let’s review the constant pressure heat addition process for water. Since state
3 is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor, how do we locate it on the T-v
diagram? To establish the location of state 3 a new parameter called the quality x is
defined as mass saturated vapor mg
x 
masstotal m f  mg
The quality is zero for the saturated liquid and one for the saturated vapor (0 ≤ x ≤ 1).
The average specific volume at any state 3 is given in terms of the quality as follows.
Consider a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. The liquid has a mass mf
and occupies a volume Vf. The vapor has a mass mg and occupies a volume Vg.
Do you think that quality has a significant in compressed liquid and
superheated vapor region?

18
We note
V V f  Vg
m m f  mg
V mv , V f m f v f , Vg mg v g
mv m f v f  mg v g
mf v f mg v g
v 
m m
Recall the definition of quality x
mg mg
x 
m m f  mg
Then
mf m  mg
 1  x
m m
Note, quantity 1- x is often given the name moisture. The specific volume of the
saturated mixture becomes
v (1  x )v f  xv g

19
The form that we use most often is
v v f  x (v g  v f )

It is noted that the value of any extensive property per unit mass in the saturation
region is calculated from an equation having a form similar to that of the above
equation. Let Y be any extensive property and let y be the corresponding
intensive property, Y/m, then
Y
y   y f  x( yg  y f )
m
 y f  x y fg
where y fg  y g  y f

The term yfg is the difference between the saturated vapor and the saturated liquid
values of the property y; y may be replaced by any of the variables v, u, h, or s.

We often use the above equation to determine the quality x of a saturated liquid-
vapor state.

The following application is called the Lever Rule:

20
 y  yf
x
y fg
The Lever Rule is illustrated in the following figures.

Superheated Vapor Table

A substance is said to be superheated if the given temperature is greater than the

saturation temperature for the given pressure.
State 5 is a superheated state.
In the superheated vapor Table A-6, T and P are the independent properties. The
value of temperature to the right of the pressure is the saturation temperature for the
pressure.
The first entry in the table is the saturated vapor state at the pressure.
21
Compressed Liquid Water Table

A substance is said to be a compressed liquid when the pressure is greater than the
saturation pressure for the temperature.

It is now noted that state 1 is called a compressed liquid state because the saturation
pressure for the temperature T1 is less than P1.

Data for water compressed liquid states are found in the compressed liquid tables,
Table A-7. Table A-7 is arranged like Table A-6, except the saturation states are the
saturated liquid states. Note that the data in Table A-7 begins at 5 MPa or 50 times
22
atmospheric pressure.
At pressures below 5 MPa for water, the data are approximately equal to the
saturated liquid data at the given temperature. We approximate intensive parameter
y, that is v, u, h, and s data as
y  y f @T
The enthalpy is more sensitive to variations in pressure; therefore, at high pressures
the enthalpy can be approximated by

h h f @T  v f ( P  Psat )
23
How to Choose the Right Table

The correct table to use to find the thermodynamic properties of a real substance can
always be determined by comparing the known state properties to the properties in
the saturation region.

Given the temperature or pressure and one other property from the group v, u, h, and
s, the following procedure is used.

For example if the pressure and specific volume are specified, three questions are
asked. For the given pressure,

24
 For the given pressure
Is v  v f ?
Is v f  v  v g ?
Is v g  v ?

The answer to one of these questions must be yes. If the answer to the first
question is yes, the state is in the compressed liquid region, and the compressed
liquid tables are used to find the properties of the state. If the answer to the
second question is yes, the state is in the saturation region, and either the
saturation temperature table or the saturation pressure table is used to find the
properties. Then the quality is calculated and is used to calculate the other
properties, u, h, and s. If the answer to the third question is yes, the state is in
the superheated region and the superheated tables are used to find the other
properties.

Some tables may not always give the internal energy. When it is not listed, the
internal energy is calculated from the definition of the enthalpy as

u  h  Pv
25
Example 2-2

Determine the enthalpy of 1.5 kg of water contained in a volume of 1.2 m 3 at 200 kPa.
Recall we need two independent, intensive properties to specify the state of a simple
substance. Pressure P is one intensive property and specific volume is another.

Therefore, we calculate the specific volume.

Volume 12. m3 m3
v  0.8
mass 15
. kg kg

Using Table A-5 at P = 200 kPa,

26
 vf = 0.001061 m3/kg , vg = 0.8858 m3/kg
Now,
Is v  v f ? No
Is v f  v  v g ? Yes
Is v g  v ? No
Locate this state on a T-v diagram.
T

We see that the state is in the two-phase or saturation region. So we must find the
quality x first.
v v f  x (v g  v f )

27
 v  vf
x
vg  v f
0.8  0.001061

0.8858  0.001061
Then,
0.903 (What does this mean?)

h h f  x h fg
504.7  (0.903)(2201.6)
kJ
2492.7
kg

28
Example 2-4

Consider the closed, rigid container of water shown below. The pressure is 700 kPa,
the mass of the saturated liquid is 1.78 kg, and the mass of the saturated vapor is
0.22 kg. Heat is added to the water until the pressure increases to 8 MPa. Find the
final temperature, enthalpy, and internal energy of the water. Does the liquid level
rise or fall? Plot this process on a P-v diagram with respect to the saturation lines
and the critical point.

P
mg, Vg

Sat. Vapor

mf, Vf
Sat. Liquid
v
29
Let’s introduce a solution procedure that we will follow throughout the course. A
similar solution technique is discussed in detail in Chapter 1.

System: A closed system composed of the water enclosed in the tank

Property Relation: Steam Tables

Process: Volume is constant (rigid container)

For the closed system the total mass is constant and since the process is one in
which the volume is constant, the average specific volume of the saturated mixture
during the process is given by
V
v   constant
m
or
v2 v1
Now to find v1 recall that in the two-phase region at state 1

30
 mg1 0.22 kg
x1   011
.
m f 1  mg1 .  0.22) kg
(178
Then, at P = 700 kPa
v1 v f 1  x1 (vg1  v f 1 )
0.001108  (0.11)(0.2728  0.001108)
m3
0.031
kg
State 2 is specified by:
P2 = 8 MPa, v2 = 0.031 m3/kg

At 8 MPa = 8000 kPa,

vf = 0.001384 m3/kg vg = 0.02352 m3/kg

at 8 MPa, v2 = 0.031 m3/kg.

Is v2  v f ? No
Is v f  v2  v g ? No
Is v g  v2 ? Yes
31
Therefore, State 2 is superheated.

Interpolating in the superheated tables at

T2 8= MPa,
361 v = 0.031 m /kg gives,
3

C
h2 = 3024
kJ/kg
u2 = 2776
kJ/kglevel falls.
Since state 2 is superheated, the liquid

Extra Problem

What would happen to the liquid level in the last example if the specific volume had
been 0.001 m3/kg and the pressure was 8 MPa?

32
Equations of State

The relationship among the state variables, temperature, pressure, and specific
volume is called the equation of state. We now consider the equation of state for
the vapor or gaseous phase of simple compressible substances.

Ideal Gas

Based on our experience in chemistry and physics we recall that the combination of
Boyle’s and Charles’ laws for gases at low pressure result in the equation of state for
the ideal gas as

where R is the constant of proportionality and is called the gas constant and takes
on a different value for each gas. If a gas obeys this relation, it is called an ideal gas.
We often write this equation as
Pv  RT
33
The gas constant for ideal gases is related to the universal gas constant valid for all
substances through the molar mass (or molecular weight). Let Ru be the universal
gas constant. Then,
Ru
R
M
The mass, m, is related to the moles, N, of substance through the molecular weight or
molar mass, M. The molar mass is the ratio of mass to moles and has the same value
regardless of the system of units.
g kg lbm
M air 28.97 28.97 28.97
gmol kmol lbmol
Since 1 kmol = 1000 gmol or 1000 gram-mole and 1 kg = 1000 g, 1 kmol of air has a
mass of 28.97 kg or 28,970 grams.
m N M
The ideal gas equation of state may be written several ways.
Pv RT
V
P RT
m
34
PV mRT
Here P = absolute pressure in MPa, or
kPa
v = molar specific volume in
m3/kmol
T = absolute temperature in K
Ru = 8.314 kJ/(kmolK)
Some values of the universal
Universal Gas gas constant are
Constant, Ru
8.314 kJ/(kmolK)
8.314
kPam3/(kmolK)
1.986 Btu/(lbmolR)
1545 ftlbf/(lbmolR)
35
10.73
3
 The ideal gas equation of state can be derived from basic principles if one
assumes

1. Intermolecular forces are small.

2. Volume occupied by the particles is small.
Example 2-5

Determine the particular gas constant for air and hydrogen.

Ru
R
M
kJ
8.314
Rair  kmol  K 0.287 kJ
kg kg  K
28.97
kmol

kJ
8.314
Rhydrogen  kmol  K 4.124 kJ
kg kg  K
2.016
kmol
36
The ideal gas equation of state is used when
(1)the pressure is small compared to the critical pressure or
(2) when the temperature is twice the critical temperature and the pressure is
less than 10 times the critical pressure.
The critical point is that state where there is an instantaneous change from the liquid
phase to the vapor phase for a substance. Critical point data are given in Table A-1.

Compressibility Factor

To understand the above criteria and to determine how much the ideal gas
equation of state deviates from the actual gas behavior, we introduce the
compressibility factor Z as follows.

or
Pv Z Ru T
Pv
Z
Ru T

37
For an ideal gas Z = 1, and the deviation of Z from unity measures the
deviation of the actual P-V-T relation from the ideal gas equation of state.
The compressibility factor is expressed as a function of the reduced pressure
and the reduced temperature. The Z factor is approximately the same for all
gases at the same reduced temperature and reduced pressure, which are
defined as

T P
TR  and PR 
Tcr Pcr
where Pcr and Tcr are the critical pressure and temperature, respectively. The
critical constant data for various substances are given in Table A-1. This is
known as the principle of corresponding states. Figure 3-51 gives a
comparison of Z factors for various gases and supports the principle of
corresponding states.

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We see that the region for which water behaves as an ideal gas is in the superheated
region and depends on both T and P. We must be cautioned that in this course,
when water is the working fluid, the ideal gas assumption may not be used to solve
problems. We must use the real gas relations, i.e., the property tables.

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 Other Equations of State

Many attempts have been made to keep the simplicity of the ideal gas equation of
state but yet account for the intermolecular forces and volume occupied by the
particles. Three of these are

van der Waals:

a
(P  2
)(v  b)  R T
v
where

27 R 2 Tcr2 RTcr
a and b
64 Pcr 8 Pcr

Extra Assignment

Reason out why van der Waals’ constants a/v2 and b are incorporated
in ideal equation equations.

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Beattie-Bridgeman:

where

The constants a, b, c, Ao, Bo for various substances are found in Table

3-4.

Benedict-Webb-Rubin:

The constants for various substances appearing in the Benedict-Webb­-Rubin

equation are given in Table 3-4.

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Thank You

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