RESEARCH METHODS

AND STATISTICS 2
P R O F. G L E N N E B . L A G U R A , M P A
 ABOUT THE COURSE

Course Number : PA 203 / GM 212

Course Title : Research Methods and Statistics
II
Course Credit : 3 units
Pre-requisite : Research Methods and Statistics
I
 ABOUT THE COURSE – PA 203

Course Description:
Focuses on the use of advanced research
methods and statistics in analyzing public
programs, policy issues and public non-profit
managerial concerns and challenges. Intermediate
statistical techniques including but not limited to,
analysis of variance. Correlation and regression,
time series analysis and applicable tools and
techniques in statistics. Presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data and drawing out conclusion
using desired software is desired.
 ABOUT THE COURSE – GM 212

Course Description:
Building on skills learned in Research Methods and
Statistics I, this course focuses on the use of more advanced
research methods and statistics in analyzing public programs,
policy issues and public non-profit managerial issues. Topics
include experimental and quasi-experimental designs, survey
research, sampling strategies and intermediate statistical
techniques including analysis of variance, correlation and
regression and time series analysis. Problem solving exercises
involving data analysis and interpretation using a Windows
based version of Statistical Package will be emphasized
throughout the course. In addition, students will compete their
own analytical projects from problem formulation through
preparation of a brief report, as a major requirement of the
course.
 ABOUT THE COURSE:

GENERAL COURSE OBJECTIVES

After taking the course, the students are expected to:
• Have reviewed selected topics from Research
Methods and Statistics I that includes: applicable
research designs for evaluating public programs,
sampling strategies, survey research and descriptive
statistics.
• Know how and when to use the different
intermediate statistical techniques.
• Acquire skills in using statistical analysis software.
• Develop core competencies in writing and presenting
a short research report.
 GETTING TO KNOW EACH OTHER

Glenne B. Lagura, MPA

BPA Program Chairperson
Institute of Management, Governance and Continuing Studies
Davao del Norte State College

Contact Information:
Mobile Number: 09989523183
Email address: [email protected]
Facebook: www.facebook.com/smartbutfool
 LEVELLING OFF OF EXPECTATION

What have you learned?

What do you expect to learn?
What do you want to learn?
 RECAP…

What is Research?

• The researcher asks a question

• The researcher collects data
• The researcher indicates how the
data answered the question
THE RESEARCH SPIRAL
The Research Spiral

I. Identify the Research Problem

• Specify a problem
• Justify a problem
• Suggest a need to study it for audiences
The Research Spiral

II. Specify a Purpose for the Research

• Identify the purpose statement
• Narrow the purpose statement to research
• Quantitative: Research Questions and or
hypothesis
• Qualitative: Central Phenomenon and sub-
questions
 UNIT1:
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS RESEARCH

The Research Spiral

III. Reviewing the Literature

• Locate the Resources
• Books
• Journals
• Electronic Resources
The Research Spiral

IV. Select Resources

• Determine the relevant resources for the
topic
• Organize the resources by developing a
“Literature Map”
• Summarize the resources in a Literature
Review
The Research Spiral

V. Collect Data
• Determine the data collection method
• Select the individuals to study
• Design data collection instruments and
outline procedures
• Obtain permissions
• Gather information
 UNIT1:
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS RESEARCH

The Research Spiral

VI. Analyzing and Interpreting

Data
• Breaking down the data
• Representing the data
• Explaining the data
The Research Spiral

VII. Reporting and Evaluating

Research
• Determine the audience for the report
• Structure the report
• Write the report sensitively and
accurately
 SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN

Research designs are plans and the

procedures for research that span the decisions
from broad assumptions to detailed methods of
data collection and analysis.
3 Types of Designs
• Qualitative research
• Quantitative research
• Mixed Methods
 A. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a means for
exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem. The process of research
involves emerging questions and procedures,
data typically collected in the participant’s
setting, data analysis inductively building from
particulars to general themes, and the
researcher making interpretations of the
meaning of the data.
 B. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is a means for
testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables. These
variables, in turn, can be measured,
typically on instruments, so that numbered
data can be analyzed using statistical
procedures.
 C. Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research is an
approach to inquiry that combines or
associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms. It involves philosophical
assumptions, the use of qualitative and
quantitative approaches, and the mixing of
both approaches in a study.
 ACTIVITY 1

Identify the appropriate research design to be

utilized based on the given phrases.

QUALITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE
MIXED METHOD
Strategies of Inquiry
Strategies of inquiry are types of
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods designs or models that provide
specific direction for procedures in a
research design.
3 Strategies:
1. Quantitative Strategies
2. Qualitative Strategies
3. Mixed Method Strategies
1. Quantitative Strategies

A. Survey research
Survey research provides a quantitative or
numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of
that population.

B. Experimental research
Experimental research seeks to determine if
a specific treatment influences an outcome.
2. Qualitative Strategies

A. Ethnography
Ethnography is a strategy of inquiry in which the
researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural
setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting,
primarily, observational and interview data.

B. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a strategy of inquiry in which
the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a
process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants.
2. Qualitative Strategies

C. Case Studies
Case studies are a strategy of inquiry in which the
researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, process,
or one or more individuals.
D. Phenomenological research
Phenomenological research is a strategy of inquiry in
which the researcher identifies the essence of human
experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants.
E. Narrative research
Narrative research is a strategy of inquiry in which the
researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more
individuals to provide stories about their lives.
3. Mixed Methods Strategies

A. Sequential Mixed Methods

Sequential mixed methods procedures are those in which the
researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one
method with another method.
B. Concurrent Mixed Methods
Concurrent mixed methods procedures are those in which
the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative
data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research
problem.
C. Transformative Mixed Methods
Transformative mixed methods procedures are those in
which the researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching
perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and
qualitative data.
 SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN
Quantitative, Mixed and Qualitative Methods

Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods

Qualitative Methods
 Pre-determined  Both pre-determined  Emerging methods
 Instrument based and emerging  Open-ended
questions methods questions
 Performance data,  Both open- and  Interview data,
attitude data, close-ended observation data,
observational questions document data,
data, and census  Multiple forms of and audio-visual
data data drawing on all data
 Statistical possibilities  Text and image
analysis  Statistical and text analysis
 Statistical analysis  Themes, patterns
interpretation  Across databases interpretation
interpretation
CRITERIA IN SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN

1. The Research Problem

Certain types of social research problems call for specific approaches.

For example, if the problem calls for (a) the identification of factors that
influence an outcome, (b) the utility of an intervention or (c) understanding
the best predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best.

On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon needs to be

understood because little research has been done on it, then it merits a
qualitative approach. Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful
when the researcher does not know the important variables to examine.

A mixed methods design is useful when either the quantitative or

qualitative approach by itself is inadequate to best understand a research
problem or the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research can
provide the best understanding.
CRITERIA IN SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN

2. Personal Experiences

Researchers own personal training and experiences also

influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in
technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer statistical
programs and familiar with quantitative journals in the library
would most likely choose the quantitative design. On the other
hand, individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or
conducting personal interviews or making up-close observations
may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The mixed methods
researcher has the time and resources to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data and has outlets for mixed
methods studies, which tend to be large in scope.
•
 CRITERIA IN SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN

2. Audience
Finally, Researchers write for audiences that
will accept their research. The experiences of these
audiences with quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
methods studies can shape the decision made
about this choice.
•
 DIFF. ELEMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Variables of the Study

• Assumptions
• Hypotheses
 VARIABLE

• Anything that can take on differing or

varying values
• Values can differ at various times for same
object or person (longitudinal data)
• Values can differ at the same time for
different objects or persons(cross-sectional
data)
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

Dependent variable
(also known as criterion variable)
• Of primary intent to the researcher
• Researcher’s goal is to explain or predict
the variability in the dependent variable
• Through an analysis of the dependent
variable (i.e. what variables explain it), it
is possible to find solutions to the
problem.
• It is possible to have more than one
dependent variable.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

Independent variable
(also known as predictor variable)
• The independent variables, also known as the predictor or
explanatory variables, are the factors that you think explain
variation in the dependent variable. In other words, these
are the causes.
• For example, you may think that people are more
satisfied with their jobs if they are given a lot of
freedom to do what they want, and if they are well-
paid. So 'job freedom' and 'salary' are the
independent variables, and 'job satisfaction' is the
dependent variable. This is diagrammed as follows:
• Influences the dependent variable in either a
positive or negative way (i.e. with each unit
increase in the dependent variable, there is an
increase or decrease in the dependent variable
also)
• The variance in the dependent variable is
accounted for by the independent variable.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

Moderating Variable

• Has strong contingent effect on the independent

variable-dependent variable relationship
• The presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the originally expected
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
• A moderator variable is one that modifies the
relationship between two other variables.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

• For example, suppose you are studying job applications to

various departments within a large organization. You believe
that in overall, women applicants are more likely to get the job
than men applicants, but that this varies by the number of
women already in the department the person applied to.
Specifically, departments that already have a lot of women will
favor female applicants, while departments with few women
will favor male applicants. We can diagram this as follows:
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

Intervening Variable

• An intervening or intermediary variable is one

that is affected by the independent variable and
in turn affects the dependent variable. For
example, we said that diversity is good for
profitability because diversity leads to innovation
(fresh looks) which in turn leads to profitability.
Here, innovation is an intervening variable. We
diagram it this way:
 Note that in the diagram, there is no arrow from diversity
directly to profitability. This means that if we control for
innovativeness, diversity is unrelated to profitability. To control for a
variable means to hold its values constant. For example, suppose we
measure the diversity, innovativeness and profitability of a several
thousand companies. If we look at the relationship between diversity
and profitability, we might find that the more diverse companies
have, on average, higher profitability than the less diverse
companies. But suppose we divide the sample into two groups:
innovative companies and non-innovative. Now, within just the
innovative group, we again look at the relationship between
diversity and profitability. We might find that there is no relationship.
Similarly, if we just look at the non-innovative group, we might find
no relationship between diversity and profitability there either.
That's because the only reason diversity affects profitability is
because diversity tends to affect a company's innovativeness, and
that in turn affects profitability.
 ASSUMPTIONS

• An assumption is a self-evident truth which is based

upon a known fact or phenomenon. Generally, every
specific question is implicitly based upon an
assumption. If there is no assumption, expressed or
implicit, there can be no specific question.

Example:
• Specific Question: How qualified are the teachers
handling math?
• Implicit (unwritten) Assumption: There are
certain qualifications that one should possess before
he can teach math.
GUIDELINES IN THE USE OF BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS
• You cannot assume the value of your study.
• You cannot assume the reliability of the
instruments you propose to use in your research.
• You cannot assume the validity of basic data.
• An assumption is not tested, neither is it
defended nor argued.
 HYPOTHESES

• Reflects the general problem under study

• Restates the general problem in a form that is
precise enough to allow testing

• From Idea to Research Question to

Hypothesis
• You’ve identified an area of interest
• Now formulate a research question that:
• Is a clearly stated expression of interest and intent, and
• That implies a relationship between variables
 TWO FORMS OF HYPOTHESES

a) NULL HYPOTHESIS
• States that there is no relationship between the
independent and dependent variables under study

• Ho: µ1 = µ2

Purpose of Null Hypothesis

• A starting point for analysis
• Accepted as true absent other information
• Assumes that chance caused any observed differences
• Provides a benchmark for comparison
 TWO FORMS OF HYPOTHESES

b.) ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

• A statement of inequality
• A relationship exists between the independent and
dependent variables

• Purpose of Alternative Hypothesis

• Directly tested during research process
• To compare against Null hypothesis
 WHAT MAKES A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS?

• Stated in declarative form

• Posits a relationship between
variables
• Reflects theory or literature
• Brief and to the point
• Testable
GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION
OF EXPLICIT HYPOTHESES
• In experimental investigations, hypotheses have
to be explicit. They have to be expressed also in
comparative and correlational studies.
• In descriptive and historical investigations,
hypotheses are seldom expressed if not entirely
absent.
• Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form.
• Hypotheses are formulated from the specific
questions upon which they are based.
EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Quantitative data measures either how much or how many

of something, i.e. a set of observations where any single
observation is a number that represents an amount or a
count.
Discrete variables: The set of all possible values which
consists only of isolated points, e.g. counting variables (1, 2,
3 ...). When data represent counts, they are discrete.

Continuous variables: Continuous data have infinite

possibilities: 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.141421...percentages
and proportions do serve as continuous measures.

Qualitative data provide labels, or names, for categories of

like items, i.e. a set of observations where any single
observation is a word or code that represents a class or
category.
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
(LEVELS OR SCALES FOR MEASURING A
VARIABLE)

1. Nominal: Nominal data have no order and thus only gives

names or labels to various categories

• Gender
1 = Female, 2 = Male

• Race/Ethnicity
1 = White, 2 =Black, 3 = Hispanic

• Religion
1 = Protestant, 2 = Catholic, 3 = Jewish

• Political party affiliation

1=Democrat, 2=Republican, 3=Other
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
(LEVELS OR SCALES FOR MEASURING A
VARIABLE)

2. Ordinal: Ordinal data have order, but the interval

between measurements is not meaningful.

• Ordinal variables allow the analyst to make statements about

“more or less,” “stronger or weaker,” “higher or lower,” etc.
• Like nominal data, ordinal data in a data set will often be
assigned numerical values for certain responses. For ordinal
data, however, these numbers carry meaning. That is, they
cannot be re-ordered arbitrarily.
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
(LEVELS OR SCALES FOR MEASURING A
VARIABLE)

Example of Ordinal data:

Example: “Do you agree or disagree that University

Health Services should offer free contraceptives?”
• A student that agreed would be more in favor than a
student who disagreed.
• If you can distinguish between the scores of the
variable using terms such as “more, less, higher, or
lower” the variable is ordinal.

The important point is the responses show a consistent

ordering.
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
(LEVELS OR SCALES FOR MEASURING A
VARIABLE)

3. Interval: Interval data have meaningful

intervals between measurements, but there is
no true starting point (zero).

• Scores are actual numbers and have a true zero

point (zero point indicates an absence of what is
being measured)
• Ordered in units that have equal intervals
 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
(LEVELS OR SCALES FOR MEASURING A
VARIABLE)

4. Ratio: Ratio data have the highest level of

measurement. Ratios between measurements as
well as intervals are meaningful because there is
a starting point (zero).

Examples:
• Age (in years)
• Income (in dollars)
• Number of children
• A true zero point (0 = no children)
• Equal intervals: each child adds one unit
Leaders Nominal Ordinal Scale Interval Fixed Rate
Scale ( how each Scale Scale (Ratio)
(whether or leader is (Assess (No. of policies
not leader ranked in each leader on which staff
encourage relation to in a scale of members got
participation others) 0-5) involved in
) decision
making)

A Yes 3 2.5 5
B No 1 0 0
C Yes 2 1.0 4
D Yes 5 4.5 16
E Yes 4 3.5 10
 NEXT ACTIVITY…

Instructions: (By Group)

Given the situation, indicate the type of data or the

scale used (i.e. nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) and
whether the corresponding statements are valid or
invalid. Explain.
 ASSIGNMENT

Statistics with SPSS

• Two types of Statistical Analysis
• Types of Hypothesis
• Statistical Errors
• Differentiate Test of Difference and Test of
Relationship and cite examples
• Research for the basic concept of the following
statistical analysis: t-test of Independent
Samples, t-test of Paired Samples, and t-test of
one sample
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
1. Political Affiliation is measured as:
0 = Republican NOMINAL
1 = Democrat
2 = Independent
3 = Reform Party INVALI
4 = Green Party
5 = Socialist D
6 = Other
This measure is a _________ scale.

Given this measure of Political Affiliation is the following

statement Valid or Invalid?
Statement:
Socialists have a stronger political affiliation than
Independents.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
2. A researcher measures juvenile delinquency by asking juveniles if they
have ever engaged in any of the following acts:
• smoked pot
• stole property worth < $5
• stole property worth > $5
• skipped school
• hit a person with a closed fist
For each action the juvenile admits to he/she receives 1 point. For example, if
someone said they had smoked pot and skipped school they received a score of 2, if
they also admitted to hitting someone they received a score of 3, etc. etc.
The scale, then, is:
0= zero acts of delinquency
1 = one act of delinquency
2 = two acts of delinquency
3 = three acts of delinquency
4 = four acts of delinquency
5 = five acts of delinquency INTERVAL

This measure is a _____________ scale.

 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
Given our scale of Juvenile Delinquency, is the
following statement Valid or Invalid?

Statement:
An individual with a score of 3 on this scale has
engaged in more delinquency than an individual with
a score of 2.

VALID
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
3. A researcher is measuring class as an income
variable [not ideal, but...]. The variable is the
amount of income a person makes in a given year.

This measure is a _____________ scale. RATIO

Given this measure of class [income], is the

following statement Valid or Invalid?

Statement: VALID
An individual earning Php 40,000 on this scale
earns twice as much as an individual earning Php
20,000.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
4. This same researcher decides to collapse the class [income]
variable into the following categories:
0 = 0-10,000
1 = 10,001-20,000
2 = 20,001-30,000
3 = 30,001-40,000 ORDINAL
4 = 40,001-50,000
5 = 50,001-60,000
6 = 60,001+

This measure is a _____________ scale.

INVALI
Given this measure of class [income], is the following statement Valid
or Invalid?

Statement:
D
An individual whose rank is 4 [40,001-50,000] earns twice as much as
an individual whose rank is 2 [20,001-30,000].
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
5. A researcher hypothesizes that T.V. habits will
affect grades in school. She measures T.V. habits as
the number of hours an individual watches T.V. in a
week.
RATIO
This measure is a _____________ scale.

Given this measure of T.V. habits, is the following

statement Valid or Invalid? INVALI
D
Statement:
Because this variable is Interval/Ratio there are an
infinite number of values for the variable.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
6. Starting in the West and heading clockwise around the
country, a researcher labels Geographical location as
0 = West
1 = Midwest
2 = East NOMINAL
3 = South
This measure is a _____________ scale.

Given our measure of Geographical area, is the following

statement Valid or Invalid? INVALI
Statement:
D
According to this scale, South has the largest
geographical area of the four areas.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
7. A researcher measures body weight as the
number of pounds and ounces a subject is when
he/she first wakes up in the morning.
INTERVA
L
This measure is a _____________ scale.

Given our measure of body weight, is the following

statement Valid or Invalid?

Statement: VALID
Zero on this scale means that the subject has no
body weight.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
8. A researcher asks the following question
regarding abortion: "In your opinion, the abortion
laws in this country are not strict enough" . The
researcher has each subject evaluate this
statement using the following scale:

0 = strongly disagree
1 = disagree
2 = neutral
3 = agree
4 = strongly agree ORDINAL

This measure is a _____________ scale.

 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
Given the measure below, is the following
statement Valid or Invalid?
Statement: Given the scale:
0 = strongly disagree
1 = disagree
2 = neutral INVALI
3 = agree
4 = strongly agree
D

Those in category four (4) feel more positive about

the abortion statement than those in category zero
(0).
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
9. A researcher creates the variable career using
the following scale:
0 = engineer
1 = medical doctor
2 = sociologist
3 = truck driver
4 = webmaster
5 = waitress/waiter
6 = librarian
7 = probation officer
8 = teacher
9 = other NOMINAL
This measure is a _____________ scale.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
Given our measure of careers, is the following statement Valid or
Invalid?
Given the scale:
0 = engineer
1 = medical doctor
2 = sociologist
3 = truck driver INVALI
4 = webmaster
5 = waitress/waiter D
6 = librarian
7 = probation officer
8 = teacher
9 = other

Statement:
Waitressing is not a more or less popular career than webmaster
according to this scale.
 EXERCISE ON TYPES OF DATA
10. A researcher measures education in the following scale:
0 = some high school
1 = completed high school
2 = some college
3 = completed college (4 year degree)
4 = some advanced degree
5 = completed Professional degree
6 = completed Ph.D.
ORDINAL
7 = Other
This measure is a _____________ scale.

Given our measure of education, is the following statement Valid

or Invalid? VALID
Statement:
According to this scale, Joe who is a five (5) has had more
education than Jim who is a four (4).
 DATA ANALYSIS USING SPSS

What is SPSS?
SPSS Statistics is a software package used
for statistical analysis. Long produced by SPSS Inc.,
it was acquired by IBM in 2009. The current
versions (2015) are officially named IBM SPSS
Statistics.
The software name originally stood for
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS), reflecting the original market, although the
software is now popular in other fields as well,
including the health sciences and marketing.
 DATA ANALYSIS USING SPSS

What is SPSS?
SPSS is a Windows based program that can
be used to perform data entry and analysis and to
create tables and graphs. SPSS is capable of
handling large amounts of data and can perform all
of the analyses covered in the text and much more.
SPSS is commonly used in the Social Sciences and
in the business world, so familiarity with this
program should serve you well in the future.

What version to use?

SPSS version 17
 TWO TYPES OF
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

1. Descriptive– frequency, graph, and

measures of central tendencies.

2. Inferential – makes broader

generalizations or inferences from sample
data to population through hypothesis
testing.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

1. Research Hypothesis – the researcher’s belief

that the research hypothesis is an accurate
statement about the condition of the things that
he is investigating.
Example:
Ha: There is a significant relationship between
educational attainment and job performance.

• What you think will happen, a.k.a just Hypothesis.

“Computer aided instruction will affect math scores
compared to standard instruction”
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

2. Null Hypothesis – denies the existence of the

research hypothesis.
Example:
Ho: There is no significant relationship between
educational attainment and job performance.

• An assumption that no significant differences

exist.
“There is no difference between computer aided instruction
and traditional teaching in their effect on math scores”
 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND
ERRORS

Type I Error – happens when we reject the null hypothesis when

in fact it is true and should not be rejected. This occurs when the
researcher assumes that a relationship exists when in fact the
evidence is that it does not. In a Type I error, the researcher
should accept the null hypothesis and reject the research
hypothesis, but the opposite occurs. The probability of committing
a Type I error is called alpha.

Type II Error – happens when we fail to reject the null hypothesis

when it is actually false. This occurs when the researcher assumes
that a relationship does not exist when in fact the evidence is that
it does. In a Type II error, the researcher should reject the null
hypothesis and accept the research hypothesis, but the opposite
occurs. The probability of committing a Type II error is called beta.
CHOOSING A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL

• We select a significance level as a criterion

for rejecting a null hypothesis.
• A significance level of 0.05 is generally
suitable for the social sciences and
corresponds to a z value of  1.96
• A significance level of 0.01 is used in
clinical trials, drug studies, etc. and
corresponds to a z value of  2.57
 ACTIVITY: TEST OF RELATIONSHIP OR
TEST OF DIFFERENCE

1. Study habits and academic RELATIONSHIP

performance.
2. Describing the job performance of
DIFFERENCE
employees by gender.
3. Family income and participation of RELATIONSHIP
women AND DIFFERENCE
4. Participation of farmers in
DIFFERENCE
governance by cities.
5. Advertisement cost and level of
RELATIONSHIP
sales.
TEST OF RELATIONSHIP
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
 CLASSIFY THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION WHETHER THEY
REQUIRE T-TEST OF INDEPENDENT SAMPLES, T-TEST OF PAIRED
SAMPLES OR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE.

1. Age distribution in 5 ANOVA

brackets. T-TEST OF
2. Gender INDEPENDENT
SAMPLES T-TEST OF PAIRED
3. Pre-test and Posttest SAMPLES

4. Before and After T-TEST OF PAIRED

SAMPLES
5. Educational Attainment in
3 brackets
ANOVA
 T-TEST OF INDEPENDENT SAMPLES

A. Checklist of Requirements

In any one analysis, there must be:

• Only one independent (grouping) variable (IV)
(e.g. gender)
• Only two levels for that IV (e.g. male and female)
• Only one dependent variable (DV)
 T-test Independent Groups

B. Assumptions

• The sampling distribution of

differences between means is
normally distributed.

• Homogeneity of variance.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

I. The Research Topic

Before considering what literature to use in a
project, first identify a topic to study and reflect on
whether it is practical and useful to undertake the study.

A. Topic
• It is the subject or the subject matter of a proposed
study.
• It should be describe in a few words or in a short
phrase.
• It becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore.
• It should be chosen by the researcher and not by an
adviser or committee member.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

B. Several ways in Choosing or Planning a Topic in

Research

• Draft a brief title to the study.

• The working or draft title becomes a major road sign
in research.
• The researcher can keep refocusing on and changing
as the project goes on.
• The working title is suggested to be written like
completing this sentence: “My study is about….”
• A good title begins with straightforward,
uncomplicated thoughts, easy to read and to
understand.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

C. Useful advice for creating a title provided by

Wilkinson (1991):
• Be brief and avoid wasting words.
• Eliminate unnecessary words.
• Use a single title or a double title.
Example of a double title:
“An Ethnography: Understanding a Child’s
Perception of War.”
• Consider the title no longer than 12 words,
eliminate most articles and prepositions and
make sure that it includes the focus or topic of
the study.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Post a topic as a brief question.

a. What question needs to be answered in the
proposed study?
b. Focus on the key topic in the question as the
major signpost for the study.
c. Consider how this question can be expanded later
to be more descriptive of your study.
d. It can be researched if researchers have
participants willing to serve in the study.
e. It can be researched if investigators have
resources to collect data over a sustained period
of time and to analyze the information, such as
available computer programs.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Post a topic as a brief question.

a. What question needs to be answered in the
proposed study?
b. Focus on the key topic in the question as the
major signpost for the study.
c. Consider how this question can be expanded later
to be more descriptive of your study.
d. It can be researched if researchers have
participants willing to serve in the study.
e. It can be researched if investigators have
resources to collect data over a sustained period
of time and to analyze the information, such as
available computer programs.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

D. Important factors in a Topic

• The topic adds to the pool of research knowledge
available on the topic.
• Replicates past studies.
• Lifts up the voices of underrepresented groups or
individual.
• Transforms the ideas and beliefs of the
researcher.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

E. Persons whom to ask for their reaction to a topic

under consideration
• Colleagues
• Noted authorities in the field
• Academic advisers
• Faculty committee members
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

II. The Literature Review

Once the researcher identifies a topic that can
and should be studied, the search can begin for
related literature on the topic.

A. Purposes of Literature Review

• It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the one being undertaken.
• It relates a study to the larger ongoing dialogue in the
literature, filling in gaps and extending prior studies.
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of
the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results
with other findings.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

B. Use of the Literature Review

In Qualitative Research, inquirers use the

literature in a manner consistent with the
assumptions of learning from the participant, not
prescribing the questions that need to be answered
from the researcher’s standpoint.
 Example of Suitable
Use of Literature Criteria
Strategy Type

The literature is used There must be some Typically, literature is used

to frame the problem literature available. in all qualitative studies,
in the introduction to regardless of type.
the study.
The literature is This approach is often This approach is used with
presented in a acceptable to an audience those studies employing a
separate section as a most familiar with the strong theory and literature
review of literature. traditional postpositivitist background at the
approach to literature beginning of the study,
reviews. such as ethnographies and
critical theory studies.

The literature This approach is most This approach is used in all

presented in the study suitable for the inductive types of qualitative
at the end; it becomes process of qualitative designs, but it is most
the basis for research; the literature popular with grounded
comparing and does not guide and direct theory, where one
contrasting findings of the study but becomes an contrasts and compares a
the qualitative study. aid once patterns or theory with other theories
categories have been found in the literature.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

In Quantitative Research, it is used to

introduce a problem or to describe in detail the
existing literature. It can introduce a theory – an
explanation for expected relationships, describe
the theory that will be used, and suggest why it is
a useful theory to examine. It uses the literature
deductively as a framework for the research
questions or hypotheses.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Forms of Literature Review

a. Integrative Review
• Researchers summarize broad themes in the literature.
• It is popular in the dissertation proposals and dissertations.
b. Theoretical review
• The researcher focuses on extant theory that relates to the
problem under study.
• This form appears in journal articles in which the author
integrates the theory into the introduction.
c. Methodological Review
• The researcher focuses on methods and definitions.
• It may provide both a summary of studies and a critique of
the strengths and weaknesses of the method sections.
• It is not seen frequently today in dissertations and theses.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

In Mixed Methods, the researcher uses either the

qualitative or a quantitative approach to the literature,
depending on the type of strategy being used.

Suggestions in using the literature in planning a

qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods study:
a. In qualitative study, use the literature sparingly in the
beginning in order to convey an inductive design, unless the
design type requires a substantial literature orientation at
the outset.
b. Consider the most appropriate place for the literature in a
qualitative place for the literature in a qualitative study and
base the decision on the audience for the project. Keep in
mind the options: placing it at the beginning to frame the
problem, placing it in a separate section, and using it at the
end to compare and contrast with the findings.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

c. Use the literature in a qualitative study deductively, as

a basis for advancing research questions or hypotheses.
d. In a quantitative study plan, use the literature to
introduce the study, describe related literature in a
separate section, and to compare findings
e. If a separate review is used, consider whether the
literature will be integrative summaries, theoretical
reviews, or methodological reviews. A typical practice in
dissertation writing is to advance an integrative review.
f. In mixed method study, used the literature in a way
that is consistent with the major type of strategy and the
qualitative or quantitative approach most prevalent in
the design.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

C. Design Techniques
1. Steps in conducting a Literature Review
• Begin by identifying key words, useful in locating
materials in an academic library at a college or
university. These key words may emerge in
identifying a topic or may result from preliminary
readings.
• With these key words, next go to the library and
begin searching the catalog for holdings. Focus
initially on journals and books related to the topic.
• Initially, try to locate about 50 reports of research
in articles or books related to the topic.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Skim initial group of articles or chapters and duplicate

those that are central to your topic.
• Begin designing a literature map. This is a visual picture
of groupings of the literature on the topic that illustrates
how your particular study will contribute to the
literature, positioning your own study within the larger
body of research.
• Begin to draft summaries of the most relevant articles.
These summaries are combined into the final literature
review that you write for your proposal or research study.
• Assemble the literature review, structuring it
thematically or organizing it by important concepts. End
the literature review with a summary of the major
themes and suggest how your particular study further
adds to the literature.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Searching Computerized Databases

Computer databases of the literature are now

available in libraries, and they quickly provide
access to thousands of journals, conference or
papers, and materials on many different topics to
ease the process of collecting relevant material in
accessing what literature is available on your topic.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• ERIC (Educational Resources Information

Center)
• It is a free online digital library of education research
and information sponsored by the Institute of Education
and Sciences (IES) of the U.S Department of Education.
• This database can be found at http://www.eric.ed.gov.
• It provides a search of 1.2 million items indexed since
1996 which includes journal articles, books,
research, syntheses, conference papers, technical
reports, policy journals, and other education – related
materials.
• It is important to identify appropriate descriptors for
your topic, the terms used by indexers to categorize
article or documents.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Google Scholar
• It provides a way to broadly search for literature
across many disciplines and sources, such as
peer – reviewed papers, theses books, abstracts,
and articles from academic publishers,
professionals societies, universities, and other
scholarly organizations.
• It provide links to abstract, related articles,
electronic versions of articles affiliated with a
library you specify, web searches information
about this work, and opportunities to purchase
the full text of the article.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• PubMed
• Researchers can obtain abstracts to publications
in the health sciences through the free access
database.
• It includes links to full – text articles (located in
academic libraries) and other related resources.
• To search PubMed, the researcher uses MeSH
(Medical Subject Headings) terms, which provides
a consistent way to retrieve information about
topics that may be described using different
terms.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• ProQuest
• It can be found at http://proquest.com, which
enables the researcher to search many different
databases; and it is one of the largest online
content repositories in the world.
• You can search ERIC, PsycINFO, Dissertation
Abstracts, Periodicals Index, Health and Medical
Complete, and many more specialized databases.
• It can be one search tool to use before using
more specialized databases.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Sociological Abstracts
• It is Cambridge Scientific Abstract that can be found at
http://www.csa.com.
• This database indexes over 2,000 journals, conference papers, relevant
dissertation listings, book reviews, and selected books in sociology,
social work, and related disciplines.
• For literature in the field of psychology and related areas, consult
another database, PsycINFO http://www.apa.org.
• Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI)
• It is a Web of Knowledge, Thompson Scientific that can be found at
http://isiwebofknowledge.com.
• It can be used to locate articles and authors who have conducted
research on the topic.
• It is especially useful in locating studies that have referenced an
important study.
• Through this, one can develop a chronological list of references that
document the historical evolution of an idea or study about your
literature review topic.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Research Tips

• Use both the free, online literature databases as well as those

available through your academic library.
• Search your several databases, even if you feel that your topic
is not strictly education, as found in ERIC, or psychology,
as found in PsycINFO. Both ERIC and PsycINFO view education
and psychology as broad terms for many topics.
• Use guides to terms to locate your articles, such as thesaurus,
when available.
• Locate an article that is close to your topic, then look at the
terms used to describe it, and use these terms in your search.
• Use databases that provide access to full – text copies of your
articles as much as possible so that you can reduce the
amount of time searching for copies of your articles.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• A Priority for Selecting Literature Material

• Start with broad syntheses of the literature, such as

overviews found in encyclopedias. You might also
look for summaries of the literature on your topic
presented in journal articles or abstract series.
• Turn to journal articles in respected, national
journals, especially, those that report research
studies. Start with the most recent issues of the
journals and look for studies about your topic and
then work backward in time. Follow up on
references at the end of the articles for more
sources to examine.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Turn to books related to topic. Begin with research monographs

that summarize the scholarly literature. Then consider entire
books on a single topic by a single author or group of authors
or books that contain chapters written by different authors.
• Follow this search by recent conference papers. Look for major
national conferences and the papers delivered at them. Make
contact with authors of pertinent studies, asking if they know
of studies related to your area of interest and inquire also if
they have an instrument that might be used or modified for
use in your study.
• If time permits, scan the entries in Dissertation Abstracts and
select relevant dissertations which can be use in your review.
• Use the Web which provides helpful materials for a literature
review. Screen the presented articles carefully for quality and
be cautious about whether they represent rigorous, thoughtful,
and systematic research suitable for use in a literature review.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• A Literature Map of the Research

One of the first tasks for a researcher working with a new

topic is to organize the literature.

The Literature map presents an overview of existing

literature. It is an illustration of a map that shows the
literature found on procedural justice in organizational
studies.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Abstracting Studies
• An abstract is a brief review of the literature (typically in a
short paragraph) that summarizes major elements, to enable a
reader to understand the basic features of the article.
• Researchers need to consider what material to extract and
summarize.

A good summary of a research study include the following points:

• Mention the problem being addressed.
• State the central purpose or focus of the study.
• Briefly state information about the sample, population, or
subjects.
• Review key results that relate to the proposed study.
• If it is a methodological review, point out technical and
methodological flaws in the study.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

How are essays, opinions, typologies, and

syntheses of past research abstracted, since these
are not research studies? The material to be
extracted from these non-empirical studies would
be as follows:
• Mention the problem being addressed by the
article or book.
• Identify the central theme of the study.
• State the major conclusions related to this theme.
• If the review type is methodological, mention
flaws in reasoning, logic, force of argument, and
so forth.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Style Manuals
• It provide guidelines for creating a scholarly
style of a manuscript, such as a consistent
format for citing references, creating
headings, presenting tables and figures,
and using non-discriminating language.
• Make a complete reference to the source
using an appropriate style.
• Identify a style that is acceptable for your
writing audiences and adapting it early in
the planning process.
 UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Using style manuals:

• When writing in-text references, keep in mind the appropriate form for
types of references and pay close attention to the form for multiple
citations.
• When writing the end-of-text references, note whether the style
manual calls for them to be alphabetized or numbered. Also, cross-
check that each in-text reference is included in the end-of-text list.
• The headings are ordered in a scholarly paper in terms of levels. First,
note how many levels of headings you will have in your research study.
Then, refer to the style manual for the appropriate format for each.
Typically, research report contains between two and four levels of
headings.
• If footnotes are used consult the style manual for their proper
placement.
• Tables and figures have a specific form in each style manual. Note
such aspects as bold lines, titles, and spacing in the examples given.
The most important aspect of using a style manual is to be consistent in
the approach throughout the manuscript.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• The Definition of Terms

• It is needed in order to understand a proposed research

project.
• It may be found separate from the literature review,
included as part of the literature review, or placed in
different sections of a proposal.
• Define terms that individuals outside the field of study
may not understand and that go beyond common
language.
• Define terms when they first appear so that a reader
does not read ahead in the proposal operating with one
set of definitions only to find out later that the author is
using a different set.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Define terms introduced in all sections of

the research plan:
• The title of the study
• The problem statement
• The purpose statement
• The research questions, hypotheses, or
objectives
• The literature review
• The theory base of the study
• The methods section
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Special terms that need to be

defined appear in all three types of
studies
• In Qualitative Studies
• Authors define themes (or perspectives or
dimensions) in the procedure section as they
surface during the process of research.
• Writes pose tentative, qualities definitions
before their entry into the field.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• In Quantitative Studies
Include extensive definitions early in
the research proposal.
The researchers try to
comprehensively define all relevant
terms and the beginning of studies
and to use accepted definitions found
in the literature.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• In Mixed Methods Studies

If it begins with qualitative data
collection, then the terms may
emerge during the research, and
they are defined in the findings or
results section of the final report.
Clarify terms related to the strategy
of inquiry used, such as concurrent
or sequential, and the specific name
for it.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• Suggestions in how to define the terms in a study

• Define a term when it first appears in the proposal.
• Write definitions at a specific operational or applied
level, operational definitions are written in specific
language rather than abstract, conceptual definitions.

• Do not define the terms in everyday language;

instead, use accepted language available in the
research literature.
• Researchers might define terms so that they
accomplish different goals.
• Develop a separate section, called the “Definition of
Terms” and clearly set off the terms and their
definitions by highlighting the term.
UNIT 3: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

• A Quantitative or Mixed Methods Literature

Review

A literature review must be composed of five

components:

• Introduction
• Topic 1 (about the independent variable)
• Topic 2 (about the dependent variable)
• Topic 3 (studies that address both the independent and
dependent variables)
• Summary
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

I. ­Quantitative Theory Use

A. Variables in Quantitative Research

Variable refers to a characteristic or attribute

of an individual or an organization that can be
measured or observed and that varies among the
people or organization being studied (Creswell,
2007a). There are also two types of variable.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

a. Independent variables refer to those that

(probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes.
They are also called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent, or predictor variables.

b. Dependent variables refer to those that depend

on the independent variables; they are the
outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variables. Other names for dependent
variables are criterion, outcome, and effect
variables.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

c. Intervening or mediating variables stand between the

independent and dependent variables, and they mediate the
effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
For example, if students do well on a research methods test
(dependent variable), that result may be due to (a) their study
preparation (independent variable) and/or (b) their organization
of study ideas into a framework (intervening variable) that
influenced their performance on the test. The mediating
variable, the organization of study, stands between the
independent and dependent variables.

d. Moderating variables are new variables constructed by a

researcher by taking one variable and multiplying it by another
to determine the joint impact of both (e.g., age X attitudes
toward quality of life). These variables are typically found in
experiments.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

B. Theory
• Theory is an interrelated set of constructs (or
variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses,
that specify the relationship among variables
(typically in terms of magnitude or direction). A
theory might appear in a research study as an
argument, a discussion, or a rationale, and it helps to
explain (or predict) phenomena that occur in the
world.

• Labovitz and Hagedorn (1971) add a definition to the

idea of a theoretical rationale, which they
define as “specifying how and why the variables and
relational statements are interrelated.”
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

Another aspect of theories is that they vary in their

breadth of coverage. Neuman (2000) reviews theories
at three levels: micro-level, meso-level, and macro-level.
Micro-level theories provide explanations limited to small
slices of time, space, or numbers of people, such as
Goffman’s theory of face work, which explains how people
engage in rituals during face-to-face interactions.
Meso-level theories link the micro and macro levels. These
are theories of organizations, social movement, or
communities, such as Collins’s theory of control in
organizations. Macro-level theories explain larger
aggregates, such as social institutions, cultural systems,
and whole societies. Lenski’s macro-level theory of social
stratification, for example, explains how the amount of
surplus a society produces increases with the
development of the society.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Theories are found in the social science disciplines of

psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and
economics, as well as within many subfields. To
locate and read about these theories requires
searching literature databases (e.g., Psychological
Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts) or reviewing
guides to the literature about theories (e.g., see
Webb, Beals, & White, 1986).
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

C. Forms of Theories
Researchers state their theories in research
proposals in several ways, such as a series of
hypotheses, if–then logic statements, or visual
models.
1. Interconnected Hypothesis
• Some researchers state the theories in the form of
interconnected hypotheses. For example, Hopkins
(1964) conveyed his theory of influence processes as
a series of 15 hypotheses. Some of the hypotheses
are as follows (these have been slightly altered to
remove the gender-specific pronouns).
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• The higher one’s rank, the greater one’s centrality.

• The greater one’s centrality, the greater one’s
observability.
• The higher one’s rank, the greater one’s observability.
• The greater one’s centrality, the greater one’s conformity.
• The higher one’s rank, the greater one’s conformity.
• The greater one’s observability, the greater one’s
conformity.
• The greater one’s conformity, the greater one’s
observability.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Series of if–then statements

• To state a theory as a series of if–then statements that explain
why one would expect the independent variables to influence
or cause the dependent variables. For example, Homans (1950)
explains a theory of interaction:
• f the frequency of interaction between two or more persons
increases, the degree of their liking for one another will
increase, and vice versa. . . . Persons who feel sentiments of
liking for one another will express those sentiments in activities
over and above the activities of the external system, and these
activities may further strengthen the sentiments of liking. The
more frequently persons interact with one another, the more
alike in some respects both their activities and their sentiments
tend to become. (pp. 112, 118, 120)
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Visual Model
• An author may present a theory as a visual
model. It is useful to translate variables into a visual
picture. Blalock (1969, 1985, 1991) advocates causal
modeling and recasts verbal theories into causal
models so that a reader can visualize the
interconnections of variables.
X1

Y1
X2
Figure 3.1. Three Independent Variables Influence a Single
Dependent Variable Mediated by Two Intervening Variables
UNIT 4: USING THEORY
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Placement of Quantitative Theories

• In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively
and places it toward the beginning of the proposal
for a study. With the objective of testing or verifying
a theory rather than developing it, the researcher
advances a theory, collects data to test it, and
reflects on its confirmation or disconfirmation by the
results. The theory becomes a framework for the
entire study, an organizing model for the research
questions or hypotheses and for the data collection
procedure.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• The researcher tests or verifies a theory by

examining hypotheses or questions derived from it.
These hypotheses or questions contain variables (or
constructs) that the researcher needs to define.
Alternatively, an acceptable definition might be
found in the literature. From here, the investigator
locates an instrument to use in measuring or
observing attitudes or behaviors of participants in a
study. Then the investigator collects scores on these
instruments to confirm or disconfirm the theory.
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Writing Quantitative Perspective

Using these ideas, the following presents a

model for writing a quantitative theoretical
perspective section into a research plan. Assume that
the task is to identify a theory that explains the
relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
•
 UNIT 4: USING THEORY

• Writing Quantitative Perspective

Using these ideas, the following presents a

model for writing a quantitative theoretical
perspective section into a research plan. Assume that
the task is to identify a theory that explains the
relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
•
 Table 3.3 Placing Quantitative Theory in Quantitative Study

Placement Advantages Disadvantages

In the introduction An approach often found in It is difficult for a reader to
journal articles, it will be isolate and separate theory
familiar to readers. It conveys a base from other components
deductive approach. of the research process.
In the literature review Theories are found in the It is difficult for a reader to see
literature and their inclusion in the theory in isolation from
a literature review is a logical the scholarly review of the
extension or part of the literature.
literature.
After hypotheses or The theory discussion is a A writer may include a
research questions logical extension of hypotheses theoretical rationale after
or research questions because hypotheses and questions and
it explains how and why leave out an extended
variables are related. discussion about the origin
and use of the theory.
In a separate section This approach clearly separates The theory discussion stands
the theory from other in isolation from other
components of the research components of the research
process, and it enables a process and, as such, a reader
reader to better identify and to may not easily connect it with
understand the theory base for other components of the
the study. research process.