Chapter 6 Bone and Bone

Structure
 The Skeletal System
Includes: bones, cartilage, ligaments, and other
tissues
6.1 Functions of the System
■ Support – internal
framework
■ Protection - skull
■ Leverage
■ Storage – minerals and
lipids
■ Blood cell formation-
Hematopoiesis
TWO DIVISIONS
▪ Axial
▪ Appendicular
6.2 Bone Structure
A. Bone Classification/Shapes
■ Types/ Shapes: ■ Examples:
1. Long 1. Humerus, femur
2. Short 2. Carpals, tarsals
3. Flat 3. Scapula, sternum
4. Irregular 4. Vertebrae, coxa
5. Sesamoid (26 locations) * 5. Patella
6. Sutural/Wormian * 6. Irregular shapes in skull
Types of Bones
Types of Bones
B. Bone Markings

❖ Bone markings
include processes,
grooves and
depressions
T= projections
F = depression

Revisit Ch 7 notes
 C. Bone Structure: Parts of a Long Bone
1. Diaphysis- shaft or body (mostly compact)
2. Epiphysis – distal and proximal ends (spongy)
3. Metaphysis – region in mature bone where
diaphysis meets epiphysis
• Includes epiphyseal plate (hyaline cartilage
that allows diaphysis to grow in length

4. articular cartilage – layer of hyaline

cartilage
5. periosteum – sheet of dense irregular
connective tissue that takes part in
growth
and repair
6. medullary cavity – space within the
diaphysis,
contains the bone marrow
 Metaphys
is Epiphysis=
Diaphysis=
ends
shaft
•Compact
•Spongy
•Bone
Marrow
Periosteum

Articular
Cartilage
•Joint surfaces
Bone structure: Long vs flat
6.3 Bone Tissue: Matrix and Cells
A. Bone Tissue
• Dense, supportive connective tissue
• Contains specialized cells
• Solid extracellular matrix with collagen
fibers
• 1/3 of bone mass is collagen fibers
• Cells make up 2% of mass
B. Bone matrix
• 2/3 of bone mass= calcium
phosphate
• Interacts with calcium
hydroxide to form crystals of
hydroxyapatite
• Incorporates other calcium
salts such as calcium
carbonate and ions (Mg, Na,
F)
6.3 Bone tissue: Matrix & Cells
C. Four types of bone cells:
a. Osteogenic or osteoprogenitor cells:
• Become osteoblasts
• Important for fracture repair
• Located in inner cellular layer of
periosteum and endosteum
b. Osteoblasts:
• Osteogenesis (bone matrix) or
ossification
• Osteoid—matrix produced by
osteoblasts that has not yet become
calcified
• help trigger the deposition of calcium
salts
• Become osteocytes
c. Osteoclasts: Osteolysis/ resorption
• Fusion of monocytes
d. Osteocytes: principal cell of bone tissue
Four Major Cell Types in Bones
Types of Bone Cells
6.4 Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone
Compact bone/Cortical Spongy Bone/Cancellous
•80% of the skeleton is compact • 20% of skeleton
bone • Makes up most tissue of
•External layer of all bones and short, flat, irregular bones &
bulk of diaphysis of long bone epiphysis
•arranged in units called osteons • Osteocytes lie in trabeculae
•Organization of osteons change • reduces weight of bone;
over time, stress protects red blood cells
•Is dense and looks smooth • Composed of lots of space
•Function: protection, support, • Function: stores marrow and
reduce stress some support
* Chemical Changes to Bone
Compact vs Spongy

Trabeculae of Spongy Bone

6.4 Histological Differences Compact vs
Spongy
A. Compact Bone Structure B. Spongy Bone
1.Osteon: basic unit 1. No Osteons
– Central or Haversian – Lamellae in open network
Canal
– Lacunae of trabeculae ( fiber
– Osteocyte bundles)
– Lamellae – Osteocytes in lacuna
▪ Calcified matrix layers connected by canaliculi
– Canaliculi 2. Marrow spaces: inside
– Volkmann’s Canals or spongy bone
perforating canals supply
blood to medullary cavity – Red marrow fills spaces
and deeper osteons and makes blood cells
– Drinking straw – Yellow marrow stores fat
6.4 Compact vs Spongy Histological
Differences
6.4 Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone
C. Periosteum
- membrane that covers
outside
of bones except within joint
cavities
– Outer, fibrous layer and
inner, cellular layer
– Fibers are interwoven with
those of tendons and
ligaments
▪Functions of periosteum
– Isolates bone from surrounding
tissues
– Provides a route for blood
vessels and nerves
6.4 Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone
D. Endosteum—incomplete
cellular layer that lines
medullary cavity
– Active during bone growth,
repair, and remodeling
– Covers trabeculae of
spongy bone
– Lines central canals of
compact bone
– Consists of flattened layer
of osteogenic cells
6.5 Bone: Development & Growth Terms
■ Skeletal growth
– determines size & proportion of body
– Starts 6 wks. after egg fertilization
until approx. 18-25 years old
■ Ossification or osteogenesis: Bone
formation
– Process of replacing other tissues w/
bone
– Two forms of ossification
• Endochondral ossification -
cartilage
• Intramembranous ossification –
mesenchymal or connective tissue
■ Calcification:
– deposition of calcium salts
– Occurs during ossification
– Can occur in tissues other than bone)🡪
can injure or kill tissue
6.5 Bone Development and Growth
A. Types of Bone Growth
■ Developing New Bone
1. Intramembranous Ossification forms within sheet-like
layers of connective tissue
– Forms bones like skull, jaw, clavicle
2. Endochondral Ossification- bones begin as hyaline
cartilage
– Forms long bones like limbs
■ Increasing Diameter (width) of Bone
• Appositional growth
■ Lengthening Bones (growing taller)/Interstitial Growth
• Epiphyseal plate 🡪 endochondral ossification
Ossification Time Table
Development of Endochondral
Bone
Growth in length: Interstitial
Growth
 Epiphyseal Plate Lengthening
■Epiphyseal plate: cartilage Interstitial Growth
■Cartilage plate in metaphysis
■Grows & divides pushing epiphyses away from
diaphysis
■Matrix calcifies🡪 chrondrocytes eventually die
■Osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with
bone
■epiphyseal plate becomes ossified🡪 epiphyseal line
Bone Growth at Epiphyseal
Cartilages
 Appositional Growth- Width
▪ Increases diameter by forming new osteons
▪ Thickens and strengthens long bone
▪ Replace some spongy bone w/ compact bone
▪ Occurs within the periosteum
▪ Layers of circumferential lamellae are added at outer
surface
▪ During this process, osteoclasts slowly remove bone
matrix at inner surface of bone
Intramembranous Ossificati
on
6.6 Bone Development and Growth
▪Bone remodeling
▪ Occurs throughout life
▪ Functions in bone maintenance
- By recycling and renewing bone matrix
▪ Involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
▪Normally, activities are balanced
▪If removal is faster than replacement, bones
weaken
▪If deposition predominates, bones strengthen
6.7 Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and
Repair
A. Effects of exercise on bone
– Mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to stress
– Heavily stressed bones become thicker and stronger
– Exercise, particularly weight-bearing exercise, stimulates
osteoblasts
▪Bone degeneration
– Bone degenerates quickly
– Up to one-third of bone mass can be lost in a few weeks of
inactivity
6.7 Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and
Repair
B. Nutrition – Diet
• Calcitriol, Vitamin D – Necessary for proper
absorption of calcium and phosphate ions
(rickets and osteomalacia)
• Vitamin A –necessary for normal osteoblast
and osteoclast activity especially in children
• Vitamin C –required for collagen synthesis
and osteoblast differentiation : scurvy (bones
fragile, weak)
• Vitamin B and K required for the synthesis of
proteins
6.7 Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and
Repair
C. Hormones
▪ Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
▪ Released by pituitary gland
▪ Gigantism: overproduce HGH by puberty
▪ Acromeglia
▪ Pituitary Dwarfism: inadequate HGH
▪ Thyroxine
▪ Released by thyroid gland: metabolism
▪ Increase bone growth
▪ Can halt bone growth if causes premature ossification
▪ Stunt growth if deficient
▪ Sex hormones
▪ Speed up bone growth and osteoblast activity formation of
epiphyseal line
▪ Calcitonin & parathormone: regulate [Ca2+]
Pituitary Deficiencies – Growth Hormone
6.8 Hormone Regulation of Calcium
■ [Ca2+] depends on activities of:
– bones (osteoclasts and
osteoblasts)
– intestinal tract (absorption)
– kidneys (excretion)

■ [Ca2+] maintained by 2
hormones:
1. Calcitonin: thyroid gland
2. Parathormone: parathyroid
gland
6.8 Calcium plays a critical role
Parathormone:
■ Secreted by parathyroid
■ Resorption
■ Responds to [Ca2+]
■ Net effect: [Ca2+]
1. Stimulate osteoclasts
2. Ca intestinal
absorption rate
3. Ca excretion at
kidneys
6.8 Calcium plays a critical role
1. Calcitonin:
■ Secreted by thyroid
■ Its exact action unclear
■ Responds to [Ca2+]
■ Net effect: [Ca2+]
1. Inhibit osteoclasts
2. Ca intestinal
absorption rate
3. Ca excretion rate at
kidneys
6.7 Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and
RepairFactors Effect on bone development
Vitamin D Needed for absorption of calcium from the small
intestine. Action of sunlight on dehydrocholesterol in
the skin is a primary source of Vitamin D which is also
found in fortified foods

Vitamin A Supports osteoclast and osteoblast activity during

normal bone growth. Deficiency results in retarded bone
growth

Vitamin C Required for collagen synthesis. Inadequate amounts

result in bones that are slender and fragile
Growth Hormone Stimulates the division of cartilage cells in the
epiphyseal plates
Thyroid Hormone Stimulates replacement of cartilage in the epiphyseal
plates of long bones with bone tissue. An excess can
cause premature closure of the plates. A deficiency also
causes short stature because the thyroid hormone
stimulates pituitary secretion of growth hormone

Male and Female sex hormones Androgens and estrogens promote formation of bone
tissue. Beginning at puberty, they also stimulate closure
of the epiphyseal plate

Physical exercise Physical stress stimulates bone growth. Stress occurs

when skeletal muscles contract, pulling on their
attachments on bones. The resulting stress stimulates
bone to thicken and strengthen
6.9 Types of Fractures
●Fractures
○ Cracks or breaks in bones due to physical stress
○ Named by position of bone, completeness of break,
orientation of break to the long axis, bone penetrates the
skin(compound or simple)
● Major types of fractures
○ Transverse, displaced, compression, spiral, epiphyseal,
comminuted, greenstick, Colles, Pott’s
Former Student Fractured
Clavicle
Former Student Clavicle Repair: Plate and
9 Screws
 Major Steps in the Repair of a fracture

▪ Fractures are repaired in four steps

1. Fracture hematoma formation
2. Callus formation
3. Spongy bone formation
4. Compact bone formation
6.10 Aging & Skeletal System
■ Osteopenia: decreasing ossification
– Reduce bone mass in 30’s & 40’s
– Osteoblast activity, osteoclast activity normal
– Females lose (8% mass), males (3%) per decade
■ Osteoporosis: significant loss of bone mass to
compromise normal function
– More in females after menopause
– fragility🡪 fractures & healing impaired
( vertebrae)
– Treatments (sex hormones: estrogen) slow effects,
but can’t prevent
 Normal

Osteoporosis