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NODAL ANALYSIS
 Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
 Choosing node voltages instead of element
voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.
 Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage
method.
 Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage
sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves
taking the following three steps. 2
 NODAL ANALYSIS
Steps to Determine Node Voltages
1.Select a node as the reference node. Assign
voltages V1, V2………..Vn-1 to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to
the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages.

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
 The reference node is commonly called the
ground since it is assumed to have zero potential.
 A reference node is indicated by any of the three
below symbols. The type of ground in Fig.(c) is
called a chassis ground and is used in devices
where the case, enclosure, or chassis acts as a
reference point for all circuits
 NODAL ANALYSIS
Example 01: Calculate the node voltages and
currents for the given circuit below

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
Class work 01: Calculate the node voltages for the
given circuit below

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
We now consider how voltage sources affect
nodal analysis.
CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between
the reference node and a non-reference node, we
simply set the voltage at the non-reference node
equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or
independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes
form a generalized node or Supernode.
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 NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

A supernode is formed by
enclosing a (dependent or
independent) voltage
source connected between
two non-reference nodes
and any elements
connected in parallel with
it.

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
Example 02: For the circuit shown below find the
node voltages

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 NODAL ANALYSIS
Class work 02: Find V and I in the circuit shown
below

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 A loop is a closed path with no node passed more
than once.
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other
loop within it.
 Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown
voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis
applies KVL to find unknown currents.
 Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal
analysis because it is only applicable to a circuit
that is planar.

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a
plane with no branches crossing one another;
otherwise it is nonplanar

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 MESH ANALYSIS
Steps to Determine Mesh currents
1.Assign mesh currents i1, i2………..in to the n
meshes.
2.Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the voltage in terms of the mesh
currents.
3.Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to
get the mesh currents

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 MESH ANALYSIS
Example 3: Find the branch currents using mesh
analysis

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 MESH ANALYSIS
Class works 03: Find the branch currents using
mesh analysis

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing
current sources (dependent or independent) may
appear complicated.
 But it is actually much easier than what we
encountered in the previous section because the
presence of the current sources reduces the
number of equations.

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 CASE1: When a current source exists only in one
mesh

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 CASE 2: When a current source exists between
two meshes
 We create a Super mesh by excluding the current
source and any elements connected in series
with it.
 A Super mesh results when two meshes have a
(dependent or independent) current source in
common.

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 MESH ANALYSIS
 CASE2: Example

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 MESH VS NODAL ANALYSIS
Given a network to be analyzed, how do we know
which method is better or more efficient?

First factor: The nature of the particular network

Networks that contain many series-connected
elements, voltage sources, or Supermeshes are
more suitable for mesh analysis,
Whereas networks with parallel-connected
elements, current sources, or Supernodes are
more suitable for nodal analysis.

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 MESH VS NODAL ANALYSIS

First factor:
Also, a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is
better analyzed using nodal analysis,
While a circuit with fewer meshes than nodes is
better analyzed using mesh analysis.
The key is to select the method that results in the
smaller number of equations.

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 MESH VS NODAL ANALYSIS

Second factor: The information required

If node voltages are required, it may be expedient
to apply nodal analysis.
If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be
better to use mesh analysis

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 LINEARITY PROPERTY

 Linearity is the property of an element describing

a linear relationship between cause and effect.
 The property is a combination of both the
homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity
property.
 The homogeneity property requires that if the
input (also called the excitation) is multiplied by
a constant, then the output (also called the
response) is multiplied by the same constant.
 Example Ohm’s law relates the input i and to the
output v. 23
LINEARITY PROPERTY

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LINEARITY PROPERTY

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LINEARITY PROPERTY

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 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

 If a circuit has two or more independent sources,

one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or
mesh analysis.
 The another approach is known as the
superposition.
 The superposition principle states that the
voltage across (or current through) an element in
a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting
alone. 27
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Important things to know

1. We consider one independent source at a time
while all other independent sources are turned off.
This implies that we replace every voltage source
by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current
source by 0 A (or an open circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they
are controlled by circuit variables.

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 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

We apply the superposition principle in three

steps:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one
source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
that active source using the previous techniques
covered.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding
algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources
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 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Example 07: Use the superposition theorem to find

v in the circuit of Figure below

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SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

 It often occurs in practice that a particular

element in a circuit is variable (usually called the
load) while other elements are fixed.
 As a typical example, a household outlet terminal
may be connected to different appliances
constituting a variable load. Each time the
variable element is changed, the entire circuit
has to be analyzed all over again.
 To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem
provides a technique by which the fixed part of
the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
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THEVENIN’S THEOREM

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

 Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series
with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

 How to find the Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth

and resistance Rth?
 To do so, suppose the two circuits in Figure below
are equivalent. Two circuits are said to be
equivalent if they have the same voltage-current
relation at their terminals.

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

 CASE 1 If the network has no dependent

sources, we turn off all independent sources. Rth
is the input resistance of the network looking
between terminals a and b.
 CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we
turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be
turned off because they are controlled by circuit
variables

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Example 9: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of

the circuit shown in Figure below , to the left of the
terminals Then find the current through RL=2Ω

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Class work 9: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the

equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals in the
given circuit below. Then find I

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that

“A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source
IN in in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and RN
is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are
turned off”

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NORTON’S THEOREM

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Required to find Norton current, IN, and Norton

resistance, RN
To find the Norton current we determine the
short-circuit current flowing from terminal a to b
in both circuits.
It is evident that the short circuit current is
Norton current IN.

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

 Dependent and independent sources are

treated the same way as in Thevenin’s theorem
 Observe the close relationship between
Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems: RN = RTH.

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Since RN and RTH are related according to the above

equation, determining the Thevenin or Norton
equivalent circuit requires that we find
1. The open-circuit voltage across terminals a and
b.
2. The short-circuit current at terminals a and b.
3. The equivalent or input resistance at terminals
a and b when all independent sources are turned
off.

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Example 8: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of

the circuit at terminals a-b shown in figure below

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Class work 8: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of

the circuit at terminals a-b shown in figure below

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

 In many practical situations, a circuit is

designed to provide power to a load.
 There are applications in areas such as
communications where it is desirable to
maximize the power delivered to a load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the
maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a
load.
 We assume that we can adjust the load
resistance If the entire circuit is replaced by its
Thevenin equivalent except for the load
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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

 Numerical derivation of the theorem

 Maximum power is transferred to the load when

the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (RL RTh). 47
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

 Maximum power transfer

takes place when the
load resistance equals
the Thevenin resistance.

 Power delivered to the

load as a function of RL

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

 Example 9

Find the value of Load resistance for maximum power

transfer in the circuit of Fig. below Then obtain Find the
maximum power.

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